Optical Mineralogy in a Nutshell

Use of the petrographic microscope

in three easy lessons

Part II (& III)

© Jane Selverstone
 Quick review
• Isotropic minerals –velocity changes as light enters
mineral, but then is the same in all directions thru xtl;
no rotation or splitting of light.

These minerals are characterized by a single RI

(because light travels w/ same speed throughout xtl)

• Anisotropic minerals –light entering xtls is split and

reoriented into two plane-polarized components that
vibrate perpendicular to one another and travel w/
different speeds.
• Uniaxial minerals have one special direction along which light
is not reoriented; characterized by 2 RIs.
• Biaxial minerals have two special directions along which light
is not reoriented; characterized by 3 RIs.
We’ve talked about minerals as magicians -
now let’s prove it!

calcite
ca
lci
te

calc
ite

calcite calcite
ordinary
ray,  extraordinary
(stays stationary) ray, 
(rotates)
 Conclusions from calcite experiment
• single light ray coming into cc is split into two rays
•  ray is refracted - changes direction & speed
• rays have different velocities, hence different RIs
• stationary ray=ordinary, rotating ray=extraordinary
• because refraction of  is so large, cc must have hi
remember:= nhi - nlo
If we were to look straight down c-axis, we would see
only one dot – no splitting!

C-axis is optic axis

(true for all uniaxial minerals, but unfortunately not for biaxial minerals)

More on this in a few minutes…

 Birefringence/interference colors

birefringence
Thickness in microns

Retardation in nanometers
Back to birefringence/interference colors

Observation: frequency of
fast ray light remains unchanged
(low n)
during splitting, regardless of

material
mineral slow ray
d grain (high n)
F= V/
if light speed changes,
 must also change
plane polarized
light
 is related to color; if  changes,
color changes
• waves from the two rays can be in
lower polarizer phase or out of phase upon leaving
the crystal
 Interference phenomena
• When waves are in phase, all light gets killed
• When waves are out of phase, some component of light
gets through upper polarizer and the grain displays an
interference color; color depends on retardation
• When one of the vibration directions is parallel to the
lower polarizer, no
light gets through
the upper polarizer
and the grain is “at
extinction” (=black)

See Nesse, p. 37-43 (3rd edition)

 At time t, when slow ray 1st exits xtl:
ide
l s l Slow ray has traveled distance d
n a
pt io Fast ray has traveled distance d+
O

fast ray =retardation time = distance/rate

(low n)

 slowray: t =
d
Vslow
mineral slow ray
d grain (high n) d Δ
fast ray : t = +
Vfast Vair
d d Δ
thus : = +
Vslow Vfast Vair
plane polarized ⎛ V V ⎞
light Δ = d ⎜ air − air ⎟ = d ( nslow − nfast ) = dδ
⎝ Vslow Vfast ⎠

 = thickness of t.s. x birefringence

lower polarizer €
Let’s look at interference colors in a natural thin section:

plag
ol plag

ol
Ifoleveryplag
grainof the same mineral
plag
looks different, how are weol
ever going
plag ol anything??
to be able to identify
ol

plag

Note that different grains of the same mineral show

different interference colors – why??
Different grains of same mineral are in different orientations
Time for some new tricks: the optical indicatrix

Thought experiment:
Consider an isotropic mineral (e.g., garnet)

Imagine point source of

light at garnet center:
turn light on for fixed
amount of time, then
map out distance
traveled by light in
that time

What geometric shape is defined by mapped light rays?

 Isotropic indicatrix

Light travels the same

Soccer ball distance in all directions;
(or an orange) n is same everywhere,
thus:
= nhi-nlo = 0 = black
anisotropic minerals - uniaxial indicatrix
c-axis

c-axis

calcite

quartz

Let’s perform the same thought experiment…

 Uniaxial indicatrix
c-axis
c-axis

tangerine = uniaxial (-)

calcite
Spaghetti squash = uniaxial (+)
quartz
(this is not strictly correct, but works for our purposes…)
 Uniaxial indicatrix

n

n

n

n

Circular section is perpendicular to the stem (c-axis)

 Uniaxial indicatrix
(biaxial ellipsoid)
c=Z

c=Z
nε
nε
nω
a=X nω
a=X
b=Y b=Y

What can the indicatrix tell us about

optical properties of individual grains?
 Propagate light along the c-axis,
note what happens to it in plane of
thin section
c=Z

nε

nω
a=X n
b=Y

n

n  - n = 0
therefore, =0: grain stays black
(same as the isotropic case)
Now propagate light perpendicular to c-axis
N
n - n  > 0
therefore, > 0

nnn


W E
nn 

n n
n


n
n
S

Grain changes color upon rotation.

Grain will go black whenever indicatrix
axis is E-W or N-S

This orientation will show the maximum  of the mineral

anisotropic minerals - biaxial indicatrix

feldspar
clinopyroxene

Now things get a lot more complicated…

 Biaxial indicatrix
(triaxial ellipsoid) 2Vz
Z
OA OA
2Vz

nγ
nβ

nβ
nα
nβ
X The potato!
Y
nγ nγ
nα
nβ
nα nβ

There are 2 different ways to cut this and get a circle…

Alas, the potato (indicatrix) can have any orientation
within a biaxial mineral…

c
Y c
olivine Z augite
(cpx)

b
b Y
a X
Z
a
X
 … but there are a few generalizations that we can
make
The potato has 3 perpendicular principal axes of
different length – thus, we need 3 different RIs
to describe a biaxial mineral

X direction = n (lowest)
Y direction = n (intermed; radius of circ. section)
Z direction = n (highest)

• Orthorhombic: axes of indicatrix coincide w/ xtl axes

• Monoclinic: Y axis coincides w/ one xtl axis
• Triclinic: none of the indicatrix axes coincide w/ xtl axes
 2V: a diagnostic property of biaxial minerals

Z
OA OA • When 2V is acute about Z: (+)
2Vz
• When 2V is acute about X: (-)
nγ • When 2V=90°, sign is indeterminate
• When 2V=0°, mineral is uniaxial
nα
X
nβ
Y

2V is measured using an interference figure…

More in a few minutes
 How interference figures work (uniaxial example)

Converging lenses force light

Bertrand rays to follow different paths
lens through the indicatrix

N-S polarizer What do we see??

Sample
(looking down OA)


 

substage
condensor 
 


Effects of multiple cuts thru indicatrix

W E
 Determining if mineral is uniaxial or biaxial

or

uniaxial biaxial
If uniaxial, isogyres define If biaxial, isogyres define curve that
cross; arms remain N-S/E-W as rotates with stage, or cross that
stage is rotated breaks up as stage is rotated

Reminder about how to get an interference figure

1. Find a grain that stays dark as stage is rotated
2.Go to highest power objective
3.Insert Bertrand Lens
4.Look down scope and rotate stage
 Use of interference figures, continued…
Determine the optic sign of the mineral:
1. Rotate stage until isogyre is concave to NE (if biaxial)
2. Insert gypsum accessory plate
3. Note color in NE, immediately adjacent to isogyre --

 Blue = (+)
 Yellow = (-)
uniaxial (+)

(+)
biaxial
Determining optic sign with the gypsum plate - what happens?
Op
tio
blue in NE = (+) n al
s lid
e

Gypsum plate has constant  of

530 nm = 1st-order pink

w Isogyres = black: =0

slo
Background = gray: =150

Add to/subtract from 530 nm:

530+150=680 nm = blue = (+)

530-150=380 nm = yellowish = (-)

Addition = slow + slow

Subtraction = slow + fast
 Biaxial interference figures

There are lots of types of biaxial figures… we’ll concentrate on only two

1. Optic axis figure - pick a grain that stays dark on rotation

Will see one determine sign w/ gypsum plate

curved or
(+) (-)
straight
isogyre

determine 2V from curvature of isogyre

90° 60° 40°

See Nesse (p. 100, 3rd ed)

 Biaxial interference figures

2. Bxa figure (acute bisectrix) - obtained when you are looking straight
down between the two O.A.s. Hard to find, but look for a grain with
intermediate . OA
Z
OA
2Vz

nγ

nα
X
nβ
Y

Use this figure to get sign and 2V:

(+) 2V=20° 2V=40° 2V=60°

Now do questions 1 and 2 See Nesse (p. 97, 3rd ed.)

 Quick review of why we use indicatrix:
Indicatrix gives us a way to relate optical phenomena to
crystallographic orientation, and to explain differences
between grains of the same mineral in thin section
Z
OA OA

hi 
2Vz

nγ

nα
X
nβ
Y

Z
OA OA

lo 
2Vz

nγ

nα
X
nβ
Y

Isotropic? Uniaxial? Biaxial? Sign? 2V?

All of these help us to uniquely identify unknown minerals.
 Some new properties: Cleavage
Most easily observed in PPL (upper polarizer out),
but visible in XN as well

• No cleavages: quartz, olivine

• 1 good cleavage: micas
• 2 good cleavages:
amphiboles, pyroxenes
Some new properties: Cleavage

2 cleavages
intersecting
at ~90°
pyroxene

120°
2 cleavages 60°
intersecting
at 60°/120°:
amphibole
 Some new properties: Twinning
Presence and style of twinning can be diagnostic

Twins are usually most obvious in XN (upper polarizer in)

Twinning - some examples

Clinopyroxene (augite)
• Simple twin on {100}

Plagioclase
• Simple (Carlsbad) twin on (010)
• Polysynthetic albite twins on (010)
• Pericline twin on (h01)
Some new properties: Extinction angle
Extinction behavior is a function of the relationship
between indicatrix orientation and crystallographic
orientation
c
Z
c=Z

nε

nω
b
a=X
b=Y Y

a
X
parallel extinction inclined extinction
 Extinction angle – parallel extinction

• All uniaxial minerals show parallel extinction

• Orthorhombic minerals show parallel extinction
(this is because xtl axes and indicatrix axes coincide)

orthopyroxene

PPL XN
Extinction angle - inclined extinction

Monoclinic and triclinic minerals: indicatrix axes do

not coincide with crystallographic axes
These minerals have inclined extinction
(and extinction angle helps to identify them)

extinction
angle

clinopyroxene
Now do questions 3 and 4
Review – techniques for identifying unknown minerals

Start in PPL:
• Color/pleochroism
• Relief
• Cleavages
• Habit

Then go to XN:
• Birefringence
• Twinning
• Extinction angle
• Uniaxial or biaxial?
• 2V if biaxial
• Positive or negative?
Go to Nesse or similar book…

• Chemical formula
• Symmetry
• Uni or biaxial, (+) or (-)
• RIs: lengths of indicatrix axes
• Birefringence
• 2V if biaxial

Diagrams:
* Crystallographic axes
* Indicatrix axes
* Optic axes
* Cleavages
* Extinction angles
 Another example
mistakes happen, even in books

Crystallographic axes: a, b, c

Indicatrix axes: X, Y, Z

Optic axes

Cleavages

Extinction angles

Then read text re color, pleochroism, habit, cleavage, twinning,

distinguishing features, occurrence – make sure properties match
your observations. If not, check another mineral…
On to real rocks…

…good luck and have fun!