WIND POWER

An overview of the source and

the sector
WIND
Wind

Wind consists of the bulk movement of air

Two major driving factors:

 Uneven heating
 Rotation of the planet

But also local conditions:

 Topography / Orography
 Surface roughness
 Other surface properties
Wind
Atmosphere may be divided into two zones:
 “Free atmosphere”: aloft from effects of the surface
 Atmospheric (or Planetary) boundary layer: directly influenced by the
surface, extending from the ground to the bottom of where cumulus
clouds form
Wind

 Uneven heating
 Differential heating (absorption of solar energy) between the
equator and the poles
 Pressure gradients due to buoyancy forces
 Fx = - ( )

Source: Ronaldo dos Santos Custódio (2013)

Wind
Rotation of the planet: Coriolis effect
 C = 2 Ω v sen(φ)
 Ω = Earth angular velocity = 7.29 x 10-5 [rad/s]
 v = Particle’s velocity [m/s]
 Φ = Latitude [º] ; no Coriolis effect exactly on the Equator!
Wind
Geostrophic wind
 It is the theoretical wind that would result from an exact balance
between the Coriolis effect and the pressure gradient force
 No friction effect from the ground, thus “free atmosphere”
 Much of the atmosphere outside the tropics is close to geostrophic

Source: Ronaldo dos Santos Custódio (2013)

Wind
Atmospheric circulation
Wind
Boundary layer
 Vicinity of a surface where effects of viscosity are significant
 Flow velocity at the surface is zero (no-slip condition)
 Velocity profile is a function of fluid viscosity
 Far from the surface, velocity is the same as in freestream
 Flow may be laminar or turbulent
Wind
Orography may accelerate wind speed or the opposite
 Also, may create turbulence zones
Wind
 Two models to determine velocity profile
 Logarithmic law

 , velocity at height 2 [m/s]

 , velocity at height 1 [m/s]
 , height at point 2 [m]
 , height at point 1 [m]
 , roughness length [m]
 , atmospheric stability function (>0, day; <0, night)
Wind
 Roughness length,

[m] Terrain surface characteristics (land use)

1.50 Sparse forest
1.00 City
0.80 Dense forest
0.50 Suburbs
0.40 Shelter belts
0.20 Many trees and/or bushes
0.10 Farmland with closed appearance
0.05 Farmland with open appearance
0.03 Farmland with very few buildings/trees
0.02 Airport areas with some buildings and trees
0.01 Airport runway areas
0.008 Mown grass
0.005 Bare soil (smooth)
0.001 Snow surfaces (smooth)
0.0003 Sand surfaces (smooth)
0.0002 Water areas (lakes, fjords, open sea)

Source: DTU Wind Energy

Wind
z0=1.5 zo=0.5 z0=0.2 z0=0.005
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8
Wind

 Two models to determine velocity profile

 Exponential law

 , velocity at height 2 [m/s]

 , velocity at height 1 [m/s]
 , height at point 2 [m]
 , height at point 1 [m]
 , wind shear exponent [-]
Wind

Two models to determine velocity profile

 Exponential law
Location Wind shear,
Unstable air above open water surface: 0.06

Neutral air above open water surface: 0.10

Unstable air above flat open coast: 0.11
Neutral air above flat open coast: 0.16
Stable air above open water surface: 0.27

Unstable air above human inhabited areas: 0.27

Neutral air above human inhabited areas: 0.34

Stable air above flat open coast: 0.40
Stable air above human inhabited areas: 0.60

Source: Renewable energy: technology, economics, and environment;

Martin Kaltschmitt, Wolfgang Streicher, Andreas Wiese (2007)
Wind
α=0.1 α=0.2 α=0.3 α=0.4
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5
Wind

Obstacles creates recirculation areas and turbulence that extends for

a long distance, affecting the wind profile
Wind Rose Diagram

0º
345° 18% 15°
330° 16% 30°
14%
315° 45°
12%
10%
300° 60°
8%
6%
285° 4%
75°
2%
270° 0% 90°

255° 105°

240° 120°

225° 135°
210° 150°
195° 165°
180°
Wind turbines effects

Wind turbines produces wakes that will affect the other turbines (wind
speed decreases and turbulence increases)
A general recommendation for a Wind farm layout is to position turbines
apart with a lateral (inter-turbine) distance of 5 rotor diameters and a row
spacing of 10 diameters

Source: Atlas Eólico Brasileiro (2001)

Wind
 Wind speed distribution over time is commonly represented by
Weibull distribution

 , wind speed [m/s]

 , scale parameter, related to mean wind speed [m/s]
 , shape (or form) parameter, representing the distribution itself; sometimes
the letter is used [-]
Special cases
 , exponential distribution
 , Rayleigh distribution
 , normal (or Gaussian) distribution
Wind
Weibull distribution

Source: Ronaldo dos Santos Custódio (2013)

Wind

 Available power to extract

 Kinetic energy in the wind (movement)
or

Momentum (mass flow, kg/s) in wind is mass x velocity, that means

Av

 Proportional to the CUBE of the speed!

 And linear to the swept area, but…

 So proportional to the SQUARE of the rotor diameter.

Wind
 But how much is it possible to extract?

 or power coefficient, is the ratio of extracted power and theoretical

available power
Wind
 But how much is it possible to extract?
 Using mass conservation, Newton’s second law and energy
conservation (Bernoulli) equations it is possible to maximize the power
coefficient
 Betz's law (1919) indicates the maximum power that can be extracted
from the wind in open flow, independent of the design of a wind turbine
 Betz's coefficient is equal to 16/27, that is

 Modern wind turbines reaches 80% of this theoretical limit, or

Wind
WIND TURBINES
Wind Turbines
Wind Turbines
1. Foundation
2. Transformer (at ground or nacelle)
3. Tower (steel or concrete)
4. Ladder or elevator
5. Yaw system
6. Nacelle (“power house”)
7. Electric generator
8. Weather station
9. Drivetrain
10. Gearbox (may be absent)
11. Blades
12. Pitch system
13. Hub
Wind Turbines
SCIG: Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
 Multiple stage gearbox
 Fixed speed
 Stall power regulation
 Directly connected to the grid
Used in the 80s and 90s
Wind Turbines
 SCIG: Squirrel Cage Induction Generator

 Pros  Cons
-No slip rings on the generator -Gear failures
-Lighter than other technologies -Capacitors used to supply
-Low cost reactive power
Wind Turbines
WRIG: Wound Rotor Induction Generator
 Multiple stage gearbox
 Limited variable speed: the converter controlled a variable resistance
connected to rotor winding, which in turn controlled the slip
 Directly connected to the grid
Wind Turbines
WRIG: Wound Rotor Induction Generator

 Pros  Cons
-Ligther than other Technologies -Converter needed to control the
-Medium cost rotor resistance
-Gear failures
-Capacitors needed for island
mode conditions
-Limited speed range
-Slip rings
Wind Turbines
DFIG: Doubly Fed Induction Generator
 Multiple stage gearbox
 Variable speed: converter is connected to the rotor, in order to control
slip
 Stator directly connected to the grid
Wind Turbines
DFIG: Doubly Fed Induction Generator

 Pros  Cons
-Low-cost small capacity -Gear failures
converter -Capacitors or full-power
-Medium cost converters needed for island
-Good control of reactive and mode conditions
active power -Slip rings
Wind Turbines

EESG: Electrically Excited Synchronous Generator

 NO gearbox
 Variable speed: converter controls the synchronous speed
 Generator is excited electrically by a converter
 Converter is directly connected to the grid
Wind Turbines
EESG: Electrically Excited Synchronous Generator

 Pros  Cons
-Direct coupling (no gearboxes) -Expensive full power converter
-Reactive power supply (no -Heavier than others
capacitors needed) for island technologies
operation -Small converter for field
-Complete control of reactive and -More expensive
active power -Slip rings (maintenance cost)
Wind Turbines

PMSG: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator

 NO gearbox
 Variable speed: converter controls the synchronous speed
 Generator is excited by permanente magnets
 Converter is directly connected to the grid
Wind Turbines
PMSG: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator

 Pros  Cons
-Direct coupling (no gearboxes) -Expensive full power converter
-Reactive power supply (no -Heavier than others
capacitors needed) for island technologies
operation -More expensive
-Brushless -Permanent magnets needed
-Complete control of reactive and
active power
-Reliability
-Low cost O&M
Wind Turbines
Wind Turbines
Different configurations

DFIG EESG/PMSG
Source: ABDI (2014)
Wind Turbines
DFIG: GE

Source: GE (2012)
Wind Turbines
EESG: Enercon/Wobben

Source: Enercon (2016)

Wind Turbines
PMSG: WEG

Source: WEG (2016)

 Wind Turbines

IEC61400-1 Wind Turbine Classes

WIND TURBINE CLASS I II III IV S

Reference wind speed Vref [m/s] 50 42,5 37,5 30
Annual average wind speed (0.2 Vref) Vave [m/s] 10 8,5 7,5 6
1-year return gust speed (1.05 Vref) Ve1 [m/s] 52,5 44,6 39,4 31,5
Specified
50-year return gust speed (1.4 Vref) Ve50 [m/s] 70 59,5 52,5 42 by the
designer
A Iref [-] 0,16
Turbulence Category B Iref [-] 0,14
C Iref [-] 0,12
Wind Turbines
Every wind turbine has three operational points
 Cut-in wind speed, where power production starts
 Rated wind speed, when power reaches its rated value
 Cut-out Wind speed, when the wind turbine is shutdown

Source: EPE (2016)

Wind Turbines
Example of a real power curve

Source: WEG, Gustavo Violato (2016)

Wind Turbines
Main trends are rated power and rotor diameter increase

Source: IRENA (2016)

Wind Turbines
Main trends are rated power and rotor diameter increase
 Practical example... 2016: V136 - 3,450 kW

Source: Vestas
DEVELOPMENT OF PROJECTS
Development of Projects

FIGURA BLOG BOP ESTEYCO

Development of Projects
First steps:
 Identify an area with good potential (wind resource, localization,
infrastructure, water, grid connection, etc.)
 Granting procedure (“outorga”)
 Lands (regularization, acquisition, lease)
 Environmental permits/licenses

Initial assumptions:
 Area: 1 MW for each 13-15 hectare
 Capacity factor of 50% (valid for Brazil!)
Development of Projects
Start measuring!
 Meteorological mast: wind speed, wind direction, temperature, humidity
and pressure

Source: EPE (2016)

Development of Projects

Source: EPE (2016)

Development of Projects
Development of Projects
With wind data on hands (at least 1 year), develop the first layout, in order
have an estimate for the AEP (Annual Energy Production)
Development of Projects
Simulation softwares
 windPRO (EMD)
 Openwind (AWS)
 Wind Farmer (DNV GL)
Development of Projects
Basic design, including BoP (Balance of Plant)

Source: Francesco Miceli (2012)

Development of Projects
Do the math: CoE, IRR, NPV, ...

Source: DNV-GL (2016)

Development of Projects
Sell the energy (PPA – Power Purchase Agreement)
Find finance/funding
Procurement: tenders, RFPs, RFQs...
Sign supply contracts: EPC or wind turbines (TSA), civil works, electrical
balance of plant, and so on ...
Development of Projects

Last round of permits/licenses

 Installation environmental license
 Suppression and cleaning of vegetation
 Grid connection
 Water allocation
 Quarry for material extraction
 Disposal áreas
 ...
INSTALLATION OF A WIND FARM
Installation of a Wind Farm
Earthworks for roads, foundations and pads
Installation of a Wind Farm
Foundation hole
Installation of a Wind Farm
Foundation concrete
Installation of a Wind Farm
Cable trenches
Installation of a Wind Farm
Substation and O&M buildings
Installation of a Wind Farm
Installation of a Wind Farm
VIDEO