TOPIC 3: FREQUENCY

SELECTIVE CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
•Transfer Function
•Frequency Selective Circuits
 TRANSFER FUNCTION

• The s-domain ratio of the Laplace

transform of the output (response) to the
Laplace transform of the input (source)
when all initial conditions are zero.
• The transfer function depends on what is
defined as the output signal.
 DEFINITION

Y ( s)
H ( s)   allICs 0
X ( s)
 H ( j )  H ( j ) 
 POLES AND ZEROS

• The roots of the denominator polynomial

are called the poles of H(s): the values of
s at which H(s) becomes infinitely large.
• The roots of the numerator polynomial
are called the zeros of H(s): the values of
s at which H(s) becomes zero.
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
• The transfer function is a useful tool to
compute the frequency response of a
circuit (i.e. the steady state response to a
varying-frequency sinusoidal source).
• The magnitude and phase of the output
signal depend only on the magnitude and
phase of the transfer function, H(j).
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
• Frequency response analysis is used to
analyze the effect of varying source
frequency on circuit voltages and
currents.
• The circuit’s response depends on:
– the types of elements
– the way the elements are connected
– the impedance of the elements
 FREQUENCY SELECTIVE
CIRCUITS
• Frequency selective circuits is a circuits
that pass to the output only those input
signals that reside in a desired range of
frequencies.
• Can be constructed with the careful
choice of circuit elements, their values,
and their connections.
PASSIVE FILTERS
• Passband & Stopband
• Cutoff Frequency
• Bode plot
 PASSIVE FILTERS
• Frequency selective circuits are also
called filters.
• Filters attenuate, that is weaken or lessen
the effect of any input signals with
frequencies outside a particular frequency.
• Called passive filters because their
filtering capabilities depend only on the
passive elements (i.e. R,L,C).
 PASSBAND & STOPBAND
• The signal passed from the input to the
output fall within a band of frequencies
called Passband.
• Frequencies not in a circuit’s passband
are in its Stopband.
• Filters are categorized by the location of
the passband.
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
PLOT
• One way of identifying the type of filter
circuit is to examine a frequency
response plot.
• Two parts: one is a graph of H(j)  vs
frequency. Called magnitude plot.
• The other part is a graph of (j) vs
frequency. Called phase plot.
 TYPE OF FILTERS

•Low Pass Filter

•High Pass Filter

•Band Pass Filter

Band Reject Filter

FILTER’S FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
lowpass highpass

c
c

bandpass bandreject

c1 c2 c1 c2

 MAGNITUDE
TYPE H(0) H(∞) H(ωC)@H(ωo)
LOWPASS 1 0 1/√2

HIGHPASS 0 1 1/√2

BANDPASS 0 0 1

BANDREJECT 1 1 0
 CUT OFF FREQUENCY
• LPF and HPF have one passband and one
stopband, which are defined by the cut off
frequency that separates them.
• BPF passes a input signal to the output when
the input frequency is within the band defined
by the two cut off frequencies.

• BRF passes a input signal to the output when

the input frequency is outside the band defined
by the two cut off frequencies.
 CUT OFF FREQUENCY
• The cutoff frequency (fc) is the frequency
either above which or below which the
power output of a circuit, such as a line,
amplifier, or filter, is reduced to 1/2 of the
passband power; the half-power point.
• This is equivalent to a voltage (or
amplitude) reduction to 70.7% of the
passband, because voltage, V2 is
proportional to power, P.
 CUT OFF FREQUENCY

• This happens to be close to −3 decibels,

and the cutoff frequency is frequently
referred to as the −3 dB point.
• Also called the knee frequency, due to a
frequency response curve's physical
appearance.
CUT OFF FREQUENCY

VO ( jc )  H ( jc ) Vi
1
 H max
2
6
1
 H max
2
1
 Vo max
2
 BODE PLOT
• The most common way to describe the
frequency response is by so called Bode
plot.
• Bode lot is a log-log plot for amplitude vs
frequency and a linear-log plot for phase
vs frequency.
• Many circuits (e.g. amplifiers, filters,
resonators, etc.) uses Bode plot to specify
their performance and characteristics.
FILTER’S RESPONSE BODE PLOT
LOW PASS FILTER
 LOW PASS FILTER (LPF)
• The filter preserves low frequencies
while attenuating the frequencies above
the cut off frequencies.
• There are two basic kinds of circuits that
behave as LPFs:
a) Series RL
b) Series RC.
(a) LPF RL CIRCUIT

sL


Vi (s) Vo (s ) R OUTPUT

Transfer Function

Vo R
H (s)  
Vi R  sL
The voltage transfer function
R
H (s)  L
sR
L
• To study the frequency response,
substitute s=j:
R
Vo L
H ( j )  
Vi j  ( R )
L
Magnitude and Phase

R
 H ( j )  L
2 R
  ( L) 2

  ( j )   tan 
1 L

R
 When =0 and =

Vi R

Vi R
 Qualitative Analysis
• At low frequencies (L<< R):
– jL is very small compared to R, and
inductor functions as a short circuit.

V0  Vi

V0  Vi
 Qualitative Analysis
• At high frequencies (L>> R):
– jL is very large compared to R, and inductor
functions as a open circuit.

V0  0

V0  Vi  90

LPF Frequency Response
H(j)

1.0


c
0 

-90 
 Cutoff Frequency
• At the cutoff frequency, voltage
magnitude is equal to (1/2)Hmax :

R
L 1
H (C )  
R
  ( L)
2 2 2

R
C 
L
 Ex.
• Electrocardiograph is an instrument that is used
to measure the heart’s rhythmic beat. This
instrument must be capable of detecting
periodic signals whose frequency is about 1 Hz
(the normal heart rate is 72 beats per minute).
• The instrument must operate in the presence of
sinusoidal noise consisting of signals from the
surrounding electrical environment, whose
fundamental frequency is 50 Hz- the frequency
at which electric power is supplied.
 Ex.
i. Choose values for R and L in the series
RL circuit such that the resulting circuit
could be used in an electrocardiograph
to filter out any noise above 10 Hz and
pass the electric signals from the heart
at or near 1 Hz. (choose L=100 mH)
ii. Then compute the magnitude of Vo at 1
Hz, 10 Hz, and 50 Hz to see how well
the filter performs.
 Known quantities

• Inductor, L = 100 mH
• Cut off frequency, fc = 10 Hz
– therefore, c = 2fc = 20 rad/s
 Find R

R  c L
 (20 )(100 10 )
3

 6.28 
 Find the magnitude of Vo
• Using the transfer function, the output
voltage can be computed:
Vo  H ( j )  Vi
R
 Vo ( )  L Vi
2 R
  ( L) 2

20
 Vi
  400
2 2
 20
Vo ( )  Vi
  400
2 2

f(Hz) Vi  Vo 

1 1.0 0.995

10 1.0 0.707

50 1.0 0.196
(b) LPF RC CIRCUIT


Vi vo C OUTPUT

Transfer Function

1
Vo j C
H ( j )  
Vi R  1
j C
1
 RC
j  1
RC
Magnitude and Phase of
H(j)

1
Vo RC
 H ( j )  
Vi

  1 RC
2
 2

  ( j )   tan RC
1
 • Zero frequency (=0): • Frequency increasing
– the impedance of the from zero:
capacitor is infinite, and
– the impedance of the
the capacitor acts as an
open circuit. capacitor decreases
relative to the
– Vo and Vi are the same. impedance of the
resistor
• Infinite frequency (=): – the source voltage
– the impedance of the divides between the
resistive impedance
capacitor is infinite, and the
and the capacitive
capacitor acts as an open
impedance.
circuit.
– Vo is smaller than Vi.
– Vo is zero.
 Cutoff Frequency
• The voltage magnitude is equal to (1/2)
Hmax at the cutoff frequency:

1
RC 1
H (C )  
C  ( 1 2
2 2
)
RC
1
C 
RC
 GENERAL LPF CIRCUITS
sL

 OUTPUT
Vi (s) Vo (s ) R


c
H (s) 
R
s  c

Vi vo C
 OUTPUT
 Ex.
• For the series RC circuit of LPF:
a) Find the transfer function between the
source voltage and the output voltage
b) Choose values for R and C that will yield a
LPF with cutoff frequency of 3 kHz.
a) Find the transfer function

• The magnitude of H(j):

1
Vo RC
H ( j )  
Vi j  1
RC
1
Vo RC
H ( j )  
Vi ( )  ( 1
2
) 2
RC
 b) Find R & C

• R and C cannot be computed

independently, so let’s choose C=1F.
• Convert the specified cutoff frequency
from 3 kHz to c=2(3x10-3) rad/s.
 Calculate R

1
R
c C
1

(2 )(3 10 )(1 10 )
3 6

 53.05 
HIGH PASS FILTER
 HIGH PASS FILTER
• HPF offer easy passage of a high
frequency signal and difficult passage to
a low frequency signal.
• Two types of HPF:
– RC circuit
– RL circuit
a) CAPACITIVE HPF

Vi 
vo R
OUTPUT

s-Domain Circuit

1
sC

Vi (s) 
Vo (s ) R

 When =0 and =


Vi vo R


Vi R
 • Zero frequency (=0): • Frequency increasing
– the capacitor acts as an from zero:
open circuit, so there is
– the impedance of the
no current flowing in R.
capacitor decreases
– Vo is zero. relative to the
impedance of the
resistor
• Infinite frequency (=): – the source voltage
– the capacitor acts as an divides between the
resistive impedance
short circuit and thus there
and the capacitive
is no voltage across the
impedance.
capacitor.
– Vo begins to increase.
– Vo is equal to Vi.
HPF Frequency Response
Transfer Function

s
H (s) 
s 1
RC
s  j ;
j
H ( j ) 
j  1
RC
 Magnitude & Phase


 H (s) 
 (1
2
)
RC
2

  ( j )  90  tan RC

1
 Ex: INDUCTIVE HPF
• Show that the series RL circuit below also
acts as a HPF.
R

Vi 
vo L

 Ex.
a) Derive an expression for the circuit’s
transfer function
b) Use the result from (a) to determine an
equation for the cutoff frequency
c) Choose values for R and L that will yield
HPF with fc = 15 kHz.
 s-Domain circuit

Vi (s) 
Vo (s ) sL

Transfer Function

s
H (s) 
sR
L
s  j ;
j
H ( j ) 
j  R
L
 Magnitude & Phase


 H ( j ) 
2 R
 ( ) 2
L
 H()=1 andH(0)=0  HPF
 Cutoff Frequency


H ( j ) 
2 R
  ( L) 2

c 1
 H (c )  
R
c  ( L )
2 2 2

 c  R
L
 R and L
• Choose R=500 , and convert fc to c:

LR
c
500
  5.31 mH
(2 )(15 10 )
3
 GENERAL HPF CIRCUITS
1
sC

Vi (s)  OUTPUT
Vo (s ) R

s
H (s) 
R
s  c
Vi (s) 
Vo (s ) sL OUTPUT

 REMARKS
• The components and connections for LPF
and HPF are identical but, the choice of
output is different.
• The filtering characteristics of a circuit
depend on the definition of the output as
well as circuit components, values, and
connections.
• The cutoff frequency is similar whether
the circuit is configured as LPF or HPF.
BANDPASS FILTER
 Bandpass Filter
• BPF is essential for applications where a
particular band or frequencies need to be
filtered from a wider range of mixed
signals.
• There are 3 important parameters that
characterize a BPF, only two of them can
be specified independently:
– Center frequency (and two cutoff frequencies)
– Bandwidth
– Quality factor
 Cutoff freq. & Center freq.
• Ideal bandpass filters have two cutoff
frequencies, c1 and c2, which identify
the passband.
 c1 and c2 are the frequencies for which
the magnitude of H(j) equal (1/2).
• The center frequency, o is defined as the
frequency for which a circuit’s transfer
function is purely real.
• Also called as the resonant frequency.
 Bandwidth,  and Quality
Factor, Q
• The bandwidth,  tells the width of the
passband.
• The quality factor, Q is the ratio of the
center frequency to the bandwidth.
• The quality factor describes the shape of
the magnitude plot, independent of
frequency.
a) BPF: Series RLC

L C

vi 
vo
R

 At =0 and =
L C

vi 
vo R


L C


vi vo R

 At =0 and =
• Zero frequency • Infinite frequency
(=0): (=):
– the capacitor acts as – the capacitor acts as
an open circuit and
an short circuit and
the inductor behaves
like a short circuit, so the inductor behaves
there is no current like an open circuit, so
flowing in R. again there is no
– Vo is zero. current flowing in R.
– Vo is zero
 Between =0 and =
• Both capacitor and inductor have finite
impedances.
• Voltage supplied by the source will drop
across both L and C, but some voltage
will reach R.
• Note that the impedance of C is negative,
whereas the impedance of L is positive.
• At some frequency, the impedance of C
and the impedance of L have equal
magnitudes and opposite sign cancel
out!
• Causing Vo to equal Vi
• This is happen at a special frequency,
called the center frequency, o.
BPF Frequency Response
 Center Frequency

H max  H ( jo )
 s-Domain Circuit

1
sL sC


Vi (s)
Vo (s ) R

 Transfer Function

( R )s
H (s)  2 L
s  ( R )s  ( 1 )
L LC
s  j ;
 ( R L)
H ( j ) 
   ( R ) j  ( 1 )
2
L LC
 Magnitude & Phase
(R )
H ( j )  L
  2  ( 1 )  ( R ) j
LC L
(R )
 H ( j )  L
[( 1 2 2 R
)   ]  [( ) ] 2
LC L

 (R ) 
  ( j )  90  tan 
1 L 
( 1 ) 2 
 LC 
 Center Frequency

• For circuit’s transfer function is purely

real:
j o L  1 0
j o C
1
 o 
LC
 Cutoff Frequencies

2
R  R  1
c1      
2L  2 L  LC

2
R  R  1
c 2     
2L  2 L  LC
Relationship Between
Center Frequency and
Cutoff Frequencies

o  c1  c 2
Bandwidth, 

  c1 c 2
R

L
 Quality Factor, Q

o
Q

o L 1 L
Q  
R oCR 2
RC
Cutoff Frequencies in terms
of 

2
  
c1       o
2

2 2

2
  
c 2      o
2

2 2
b) BPF: Parallel RLC


vi C vo L

 GENERAL BPF CIRCUITS
• BPF series RLC:
( R )s
H (s)  2 L
s  ( R )s  ( 1 )
L LC
 o  1 ,   R • BPF parallel RLC:
LC L
(s )
H (s)  2 RC
s s (1 )
RC LC
 o  1 ,   1
LC RC
 Remarks
• The general circuit transfer functions for
both series and parallel BPF:

s
H (s)  2
s   s  o
2
BANDREJECT FILTER
 Bandreject Filter
• A bandreject attenuates voltages at
frequencies within the stopband, which is
between c1 and c2. It passes
frequencies outside the stopband.
• BRF are characterized by the same
parameters as BPF:
– Center freq. (and two cutoff frequencies)
– Bandwidth
– Quality Factor
 BRF: Series RLC


vi L
vo
OUTPUT
C

 At =0 and =
R


vi L
vo

 R


vi L
vo


 At =0 and =
• Zero frequency • Infinite frequency
(=0): (=):
– the capacitor acts as – the capacitor acts as
an open circuit and an short circuit and
the inductor behaves the inductor behaves
like a short circuit. like an open circuit,.
– the output voltage is – the output voltage is
defined over an defined over an
effective open circuit. effective open circuit.
– Magnitude of Vo and – Magnitude of Vo and
Vi are similar Vi are similar
 Between =0 and =
• Both capacitor and inductor have finite
impedances of opposite signs.
• As the frequency is increased from zero, the
impedance of the inductor increases and that
for the capacitor decreases.
• At some frequency between the two
passbands, the impedance of C and L are
equal but opposite sign.
• The series combination of L and C is that short
circuit so the magnitude of Vo must be zero.
This is happen at a special frequency, called
the center frequency, o.
BRF Frequency Response
 Center Frequency
• The center freq. is still defined as the
frequency for which the sum of the
impedances of L and C is zero.
• Only, the magnitude at the center freq. is
minimum.

H min  H ( jo )
 s-Domain Circuit

Vi (s) sL
Vo (s )

1
sC

 Transfer Function
sL  1 s 1
2

H (s)  sC  LC
R  sL  1 s 2

R
s  1
sC LC
L
s  j ;
1  2

H ( j )  LC
1 R
   j
2
LC L
 Magnitude & Phase
1  2

H ( j )  LC

 
2
1
2  R 
 2
 
LC  L 

 R 
  ( j )   tan 1
 L 
( 1 )  
2
 LC 
 Center Frequency

• For circuit’s transfer function is purely

real:
j o L  1 0
j o C
1
 o 
LC
 Cutoff Frequencies

2
R  R  1
c1      
2L  2 L  LC

2
R  R  1
c 2     
2L  2 L  LC
Relationship Between
Center Frequency and
Cutoff Frequencies

o  c1  c 2
Bandwidth, 

  c1 c 2
R

L
 Quality Factor, Q

o
Q

o L 1 L
Q  
R oCR 2
RC
Cutoff Frequencies in terms
of 

2
  
c1       o
2

2 2

2
  
c 2      o
2

2 2
 Remarks
s2  1
R
H (s)  LC
R
 s  s 1
2

Vi (s) sL L LC
Vo (s )

 o  1
1
sC LC

 R
L
sL s2  1
H (s)  LC
s
s 
2
1
 RC LC
Vi (s) 1
sC
R
Vo (s )
 o  1
LC
   1
RC
 GENERAL BRF CIRCUIT
• The general circuit transfer functions for
both series and parallel BRF:

s  2 2
H (s)  2 o

s   s  o
2