Java™ How to Program, 10/e

Late Objects Version

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 Deeper look at building classes, controlling access to
members of a class and creating constructors.
 Show how to throw an exception to indicate that a

problem has occurred.

 Composition—a capability that allows a class to have

references to objects of other classes as members.

 More details on enum types.
 Discuss static class members

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 Class Time1 represents the time of day.
 private int instance variables hour, minute and

second represent the time in universal-time format

(24-hour clock format in which hours are in the range
0–23, and minutes and seconds are each in the range 0–
59).
 public methods setTime,

toUniversalString and toString.

 Clled the public services or the public interface that the
class provides to its clients.

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 Class Time1 does not declare a constructor, so the
compiler supplies a default constructor.
 Each instance variable implicitly receives the default

int value.
 Instance variables also can be initialized when they are

declared in the class body, using the same initialization

syntax as with a local variable.

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Method setTime and Throwing Exceptions
Method setTime (lines 12–25) declares three int

parameters and uses them to set the time.

Lines 15–16 test each argument to determine whether

the value is outside the proper range.

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Method setTime and Throwing Exceptions (cont.)
For incorrect values, setTime throws an exception of type

IllegalArgumentException (lines 18–19)

 Notifies the client code that an invalid argument was passed to the
method.
 Can use try...catch to catch exceptions and attempt to recover from
them.
 The class instance creation expression in the throw statement (line 18)
creates a new object of type IllegalArgumentException. In this
case, we call the constructor that allows us to specify a custom error
message.
 After the exception object is created, the throw statement immediately
terminates method setTime and the exception is returned to the calling
method that attempted to set the time.

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Software Engineering of the Time1 Class Declaration
The instance variables hour, minute and second

are each declared private.

The actual data representation used within the class is of

no concern to the class’s clients.

Reasonable for Time1 to represent the time internally

as the number of seconds since midnight or the number

of minutes and seconds since midnight.
Clients could use the same public methods and get

the same results without being aware of this.

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Java SE 8—Date/Time API
Rather than building your own date and time classes, you’ll

typically reuse the ones provided by the Java API.

Java SE 8 introduces a new Date/Time API—defined by the classes

in the package java.time—applications built with Java SE 8 should

use the Date/Time API’s capabilities, rather than those in earlier Java
versions.
 fixes various issues with the older classes and provides more robust, easier-to-
use capabilities for manipulating dates, times, time zones, calendars and more.
We use some Date/Time API features in Chapter 23.
Learn more about the Date/Time API’s classes at:
 download.java.net/jdk8/docs/api/java/time/
package-summary.html

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 Access modifiers public and private control access to
a class’s variables and methods.
 Chapter 9 introduces access modifier protected.
 public methods present to the class’s clients a view of the
services the class provides (the class’s public interface).
 Clients need not be concerned with how the class
accomplishes its tasks.
 For this reason, the class’s private variables and private
methods (i.e., its implementation details) are not accessible to its
clients.
 private class members are not accessible outside the
class.

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 Every object can access a reference to itself with
keyword this.
 When a an instance method is called for a particular
object, the method’s body implicitly uses keyword
this to refer to the object’s instance variables and
other methods.
 Enables the class’s code to know which object should be
manipulated.
 Can also use keyword this explicitly in an instance method’s
body.
 Can use the this reference implicitly and explicitly.

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 When you compile a .java file containing more than
one class, the compiler produces a separate class file
with the .class extension for every compiled class.
 When one source-code (.java) file contains multiple

class declarations, the compiler places both class files

for those classes in the same directory.
 A source-code file can contain only one public class

—otherwise, a compilation error occurs.

 Non-public classes can be used only by other classes

in the same package.

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 SimpleTime declares three private instance variables
—hour, minute and second.
 If parameter names for the constructor that are identical to
the class’s instance-variable names.
 We use the this reference to refer to the instance
variables.

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 Overloaded constructors enable objects of a class to be
initialized in different ways.
 To overload constructors, simply provide multiple

constructor declarations with different signatures.

 Recall that the compiler differentiates signatures by the

number of parameters, the types of the parameters and

the order of the parameter types in each signature.

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 Class Time2 (Fig. 8.5) contains five overloaded
constructors that provide convenient ways to initialize
objects.
 The compiler invokes the appropriate constructor by

matching the number, types and order of the types of

the arguments specified in the constructor call with the
number, types and order of the types of the parameters
specified in each constructor declaration.

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 A program can declare a so-called no-argument constructor
that is invoked without arguments.
 Such a constructor simply initializes the object as specified
in the constructor’s body.
 Using this in method-call syntax as the first statement in a
constructor’s body invokes another constructor of the same
class.
 Popular way to reuse initialization code provided by another of the
class’s constructors rather than defining similar code in the no-
argument constructor’s body.
 Once you declare any constructors in a class, the compiler
will not provide a default constructor.

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Notes Regarding Class Time2’s set and get Methods and
Constructors
Methods can access a class’s private data directly without calling the
get methods.
However, consider changing the representation of the time from three
int values (requiring 12 bytes of memory) to a single int value
representing the total number of seconds that have elapsed since
midnight (requiring only four bytes of memory).
 If we made such a change, only the bodies of the methods that access the
private data directly would need to change—in particular, the three-
argument constructor, the setTime method and the individual set and get
methods for the hour, minute and second.
 There would be no need to modify the bodies of methods
toUniversalString or toString because they do not access the
data directly.

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 Designing the class in this manner reduces the likelihood of
programming errors when altering the class’s
implementation.
 Similarly, each Time2 constructor could be written to
include a copy of the appropriate statements from the three-
argument constructor.
 Doing so may be slightly more efficient, because the extra
constructor calls are eliminated.
 But, duplicating statements makes changing the class’s internal data
representation more difficult.
 Having the Time2 constructors call the constructor with three
arguments requires any changes to the implementation of the three-
argument constructor be made only once.

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 Every class must have at least one constructor.
 If you do not provide any constructors in a class’s declaration,
the compiler creates a default constructor that takes no
arguments when it’s invoked.
 The default constructor initializes the instance variables to the
initial values specified in their declarations or to their default
values (zero for primitive numeric types, false for boolean
values and null for references).
 Recall that if your class declares constructors, the compiler will
not create a default constructor.
 In this case, you must declare a no-argument constructor if default
initialization is required.
 Like a default constructor, a no-argument constructor is invoked with
empty parentheses.

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 Set methods are also commonly called mutator
methods, because they typically change an object’s
state—i.e., modify the values of instance variables.
 Get methods are also commonly called accessor

methods or query methods.

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 It would seem that providing set and get capabilities is
essentially the same as making a class’s instance variables
public.
 A public instance variable can be read or written by any method
that has a reference to an object that contains that variable.
 If an instance variable is declared private, a public get method
certainly allows other methods to access it, but the get method can
control how the client can access it.
 A public set method can—and should—carefully scrutinize at-
tempts to modify the variable’s value to ensure valid values.
 Although set and get methods provide access to private
data, it is restricted by the implementation of the methods.

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 Validity Checking in Set Methods
 The benefits of data integrity do not follow
automatically simply because instance variables are
declared private—you must provide validity
checking.
 Predicate Methods
 Another common use for accessor methods is to test
whether a condition is true or false—such methods are
often called predicate methods.
 Example: ArrayList’s isEmpty method, which returns
true if the ArrayList is empty and false otherwise.

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 A class can have references to objects of other classes
as members.
 This is called composition and is sometimes referred to

as a has-a relationship.
 Example: An AlarmClock object needs to know the

current time and the time when it’s supposed to sound

its alarm, so it’s reasonable to include two references to
Time objects in an AlarmClock object.

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 The basic enum type defines a set of constants
represented as unique identifiers.
 Like classes, all enum types are reference types.
 An enum type is declared with an enum declaration,

which is a comma-separated list of enum constants

 The declaration may optionally include other

components of traditional classes, such as constructors,

fields and methods.

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 Each enum declaration declares an enum class with
the following restrictions:
 enum constants are implicitly final.
 enum constants are implicitly static.
 Any attempt to create an object of an enum type with
operator new results in a compilation error.
 enum constants can be used anywhere constants can
be used, such as in the case labels of switch
statements and to control enhanced for statements.

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 enum declarations contain two parts—the enum constants
and the other members of the enum type.
 An enum constructor can specify any number of parameters
and can be overloaded.
 For every enum, the compiler generates the static method
values that returns an array of the enum’s constants.
 When an enum constant is converted to a String, the
constant’s identifier is used as the String representation.

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 Use the static method range of class EnumSet
(declared in package java.util) to access a range of an
enum’s constants.
 Method range takes two parameters—the first and the last enum
constants in the range
 Returns an EnumSet that contains all the constants between these
two constants, inclusive.
 The enhanced for statement can be used with an
EnumSet just as it can with an array.
 Class EnumSet provides several other static methods.

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 In certain cases, only one copy of a particular variable
should be shared by all objects of a class.
 A static field—called a class variable—is used in such
cases.
 A static variable represents classwide information
—all objects of the class share the same piece of data.
 The declaration of a static variable begins with the
keyword static.

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 Static variables have class scope—they can be used in all of the class’s
methods.
 Can access a class’s public static members through a reference to
any object of the class, or by qualifying the member name with the
class name and a dot (.), as in Math.random().
 private static class members can be accessed by client code only
through methods of the class.
 static class members are available as soon as the class is loaded into
memory at execution time.
 To access a public static member when no objects of the class
exist (and even when they do), prefix the class name and a dot (.) to
the static member, as in Math.PI.
 To access a private static member when no objects of the class
exist, provide a public static method and call it by qualifying its
name with the class name and a dot.

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 A static method cannot access a class’s instance
variables and instance methods, because a static
method can be called even when no objects of the class
have been instantiated.
 For the same reason, the this reference cannot be used in a
static method.
 The this reference must refer to a specific object of the class,
and when a static method is called, there might not be any
objects of its class in memory.
 If a static variable is not initialized, the compiler
assigns it a default value—in this case 0, the default
value for type int.

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 String objects in Java are immutable—they cannot
be modified after they are created.
 Therefore, it’s safe to have many references to one String
object.
 This is not normally the case for objects of most other classes
in Java.
 If String objects are immutable, you might wonder
why are we able to use operators + and += to
concatenate String objects.
 String-concatenation actually results in a new String
object containing the concatenated values—the original
String objects are not modified.

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 In a typical app, the garbage collector might eventually
reclaim the memory for any objects that are eligible for
collection.
 The JVM does not guarantee when, or even whether,

the garbage collector will execute.

 When the garbage collector does execute, it’s possible

that no objects or only a subset of the eligible objects

will be collected.

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 A static import declaration enables you to import
the static members of a class or interface so you can
access them via their unqualified names in your class—
that is, the class name and a dot (.) are not required
when using an imported static member.
 Two forms

 One that imports a particular static member (which is

known as single static import)
 One that imports all static members of a class (which is
known as static import on demand)

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 The following syntax imports a particular static member:
import static
packageName.ClassName.staticMemberName;
 where packageName is the package of the class, ClassName is the
name of the class and staticMemberName is the name of the
static field or method.
 The following syntax imports all static members of a class:
import static packageName.ClassName.*;
 where packageName is the package of the class and ClassName is
the name of the class.
 * indicates that all static members of the specified class should be
available for use in the class(es) declared in the file.
 static import declarations import only static class members.
 Regular import statements should be used to specify the classes
used in a program.

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