FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS
Phase: A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform
physical and chemical characteristics.
Solubility limit: For many alloy systems and at some specific temperature, there is a
maximum concentration of solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid
solution; this is called solubility limit.
Phase Diagram: A phase diagram is nothing but a temperature versus composition map.
With phase diagram, we can find out about which phase exists for given temperature and
Composition
The understanding of phase diagrams for alloy systems is extremely important :
A strong correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties, and the
development of microstructure of an alloy is related to the characteristics of its phase
diagram.
Phase diagrams provide valuable information about melting, casting, crystallization, and
other phenomena.
Change in Pure Iron with Temperature
(1535 C)
Generally, Latent heat transition indicates phase change but it was observed that at 768°C there is no phase
change. Only change in magnetic properties occurs. This point is called is Curie Temperature.
STEEL
Pure Iron is expensive, rarely exist and does not have the characteristics required in various
applications. Carbon is one element that is combined with iron to convert into vey useful
products known as steel and cast irons.
Steel is made by dissolving carbon into iron.
If the amount of carbon dissolved in the molten iron is kept below 2.1 weight percent, the
result is steel, but if it is above this value, one has cast iron.
Based on Composition Steel are classified into two categories:-
Plain Carbon Steel
Low-Carbon steel having 0.1 to 0.3% Low Alloy Steel
Alloy Steel
of carbon
Total amount of alloying
elements (other than carbon) is
less than 10%
Medium-Carbon Steel having 0.3 to
0.85% carbon
High Alloy Steel
Total amount of alloying
High-Carbon Steel having 0.85 to 2.1% elements (other than
of carbon. carbon) is more than 10%
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Different Phases of Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
AUSTENITE (γ)
• Austenite is a solid solution of of carbon in gamma Iron.
• It may contain a maximum of 2% carbon (at 1130 deg C) and about 0.8% carbon at
critical temperature 723 deg C.
• This microstructure has high ductility and high impact strength.
FERRITE (α)
• Known as α solid solution.
• The maximum solubility is 0.025 C at 723 deg C.
• it dissolves only 0.008 C at room temperature.
• It is the softest structure that appears on the diagram.
PEARLITE
• Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and Iron carbide (cementite).
• The carbide separates out in lamellar form as austenite is slowly cooled below the
critical temperature of 723 deg C.
• It has high strength and adequate ductility and machinability.
Different Phases of Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
CEMENTITE
• It is very hard, brittle and contains 6.67 % C.
• It is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram.
• Its crystal structure is orthorhombic.
• It is has low tensile strength but high compressive strength
Ledeburite
• Ledeburite is the eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite.
• It contains 4.3 percent C and is formed at 1130°C
δ-Ferrite
• The same structure as α-ferrite
• Stable only at high T, above 1394 °C
• Melts at 1538 °C
Three Phase Reactions
1. Peritectic, at 1490 deg.C, with .18wt% C (almost no engineering importance).
Liquid + ↔ austenite
2. Eutectic, at 1130 deg.C, with 4.3wt% C, alloys called cast irons.
Liquid ↔ Austenite + Cementite
3. Eutectoid, at 723 deg.C with eutectoid composition of 0.76wt% C, two-phase mixture
(ferrite & cementite). They are steels.
Austenite(0.76 wt% C) ↔ α-Ferrite (0.022 wt% C) + Cementite
Peritectic Phase Reaction
Liquid + ↔ austenite
Eutectic and Eutectoid Phase Reaction
Liquid ↔ Ledeburite (Austenite + Cementite)
Austenite(0.76 wt% C) ↔ Pearlite (α-Ferrite (0.022 wt% C) + Cementite)
Nucleation and Growth of Pearlite Microstructure
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation
γ → α + γ → α + Fe3C
γ → γ + Fe3C → α + Fe3C
Hypoeutectoid Reaction Hypereutectoid Reaction
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation
Hypoeutectoid Reaction Hypereutectoid Reaction
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
It should be noted that the transitions as discussed, are for equilibrium conditions,
as a result of slow cooling.
Upon slow heating the transitions will occur in the reverse manner.
When the alloys are cooled rapidly, entirely different results are obtained, since
sufficient time may not be provided for the normal phase reactions to occur.
In these cases, the equilibrium phase diagram is no longer a valid tool for
engineering analysis.
Kinetics of phase transformations
The process of phase transformation
involves:
• Nucleation of the new phase - formation of
stable small particles (nuclei) of the new
phase. Nuclei are often formed at grain
boundaries and other defects.
• Growth of new phase at the expense of the
original phase.
Isothermal Transformation (or TTT) Diagrams
(Temperature, Time, and % Transformation)
Isothermal Transformation (or TTT) Diagrams
(Temperature, Time, and % Transformation)
TTT Diagrams Including Martensite
Coarse pearlite
Fine pearlite
Upper Bainite
Lower Bainite
• There are generally two
classifications of pearlite, fine
pearlite, and coarse pearlite.
• The physical difference between
the two is in the thickness of the
layers the Pearlite is made of.
• The coarser the layers making up
the pearlite, the less they're going
to resist slipping relative to each
other, and the more ductile the
steel is going to be.
For T ~ 300-540°C, upper bainite consists of needles of
ferrite separated by long cementite particles
For T ~ 200-300°C, lower bainite consists of thin plates
of ferrite containing very fine rods or blades of cementite
Upper Bainite Lower Bainite
Bainite
• Bainite is also mixture of ferrite and cementite but formed from austenite just above Ms temperature in many steel
with small components of other metals (low alloy steel).
• Its strength is higher than ferrite or pearlite but its hardness is lower than that of martensite.
• It is becoming increasingly important in nuclear application where other steels developed stress corrosion cracking.
Martensite
• A super-saturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite.
• It is formed when steel is cooled so rapidly (Quenched) that the change from austenite to pearlite is suppressed.
• The interstitial carbon atoms distort the BCC ferrite into a Body Centered tetragonal structure(BCT);responsible for the
hardness of quenched steel
• Since martensite is metastable non-equilibrium phase, it does not appear in phase Fe-C phase diagram.
• The martensitic transformation involves the sudden reorientation of C and Fe atoms from the FCC solid solution of γ-
Fe (austenite) to a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) solid solution (martensite).
Continuous cooling
transformation diagram for an alloy
steel (type
4340) and several superimposed
cooling curves
demonstrating dependence of the final
microstructure of this alloy on the
transformations that occur during
cooling.
• The term phase equilibrium, refers to equilibrium as it applies to
systems in which more than one phase may exist. Phase equilibrium is
reflected by a constancy with time in the phase characteristics of a
system.
