THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

EXPLORATION AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

PRESENTERS
SICHONE .K. AARON
PANDEKI FRIDAH
CHAMA KAPAYA

LEARNING OUTCOME
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 About Exploration In Mining
2.0 EXPLORATION
2.1 Exploration Methods That Are Not Ground Disturbing
2.2 Exploration Methods That Are Ground Disturbing
2.3 Steps Involved In Exploration
3.0 SAMPLING
4.0 GRADE AND TONNAGE
1.3.1 Reserve Grade
1.3.2 Cut Off Grade
1.3.3 Mill (Head) Grade
1.3.4 Recovered Grade
5.0 PLANIMETER
6.0 ORE RESERVE CLASSIFICATION
6.1 Proven Reserves
6.2 Probable Reserves
6.3 Possible Reserves
6.4 Geological Reserves
6.5 Measured Reserves
6.6 Mineable Reserves
7.0 SUMMARY
8.0 CONCLUSION [i]
 LEARNING OUTCOME
Students at the end of this session must be able to
• Establish baseline/background conditions
• Measure the area of a given land.
• Find ore bodies.
• Determine if an ore can be mined.
• Determine if an ore can be processed.
• Determine ore reserves.
• Classify given ore reserves.
• Understand different sampling methods.
• Understand the units used in measuring precious minerals.
[ii]
 INTRODUCTION
• Exploration is defined as the search for mineral deposits and the work done to prove or establish the extent of
a mineral deposit
• Exploration includes prospecting, mapping and surveying, either on the ground or from a plane or helicopter,
where special equipment measures the magnetic or electrical properties of rocks on the surface and
underground (subsurface).For example using an instrument called magnetometer used to detect high
magnetic minerals such as magnetite or weakly magnetized minerals like purotite.
• If the information collected from the surveys indicates something out of the ordinary (an anomaly) in specific,
location on the ground work is done.
• A prospecting team, normally two people, will visit each anomaly to see if minerals are present on the surface.
They then take grab samples (fist-sized samples of the mineralized rock) for assay (analysis) to identify and
measure the amount by mass of metal or mineral in an ore, usually expressed as troy ounces per ton (oz/ton)
or grams per tonne(g/tonne) for precious metals.

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 Other sampling methods include taking rocks, soil, till (gravel), and lake
sediment with a sample spacing of hundreds of metres . If analysis indicates
there might be something of interest, more closely spaced sampling would
be done. This kind of sampling normally takes place on mineral claims
staked around the anomalies; smaller parcels of land.
 In location of area, an instrument called planimeter is used.
In order to find out the area, all you have to do is to trace the perimeter of
the area on the map, and note down the reading.
You can convert the area to the field area using the scale of the map.
 Ore reserve is the prime measured assets of a mine as to tonnage and grade
that can be extracted at a profit at current prices and technology, or in the
near future.
 Ore reserves may be classified as proven or probable. Ore resources
constitute all of the mineralized ore body from which the economically
feasible part is identified as the ore reserve. Measured and indicated ore
resources are converted into proven and probable ore resources. Inferred
ore resources are sometimes referred to as possible reserves. Possible
reserves should no longer be used.
 Other reserve terms, which do not necessarily constitute the definition of
ore, include geological, insitu, measured and mineable.
 EXPLORATION
Exploration methods that are not ground disturbing
• Literature search: Looking at history, reports and maps.
• Geological mapping: Planning starts with regional and local maps, followed by
new maps showing vegetation and location
of rock types.
• Geochemical sampling
Locating a particular mineral deposit by chemical analysis of rocks, stream
sediment soils, water, gas
or vegetation.
• Geophysical exploration
Collecting information about the physical properties of a mineral deposit on the
ground or from the air (remote sensing)
Exploration methods that are ground disturbing
• Rotary air blast and aircore drilling
Drilling a small hole (less than 100mm) through soil and loose rock using hammer
or blade bit to drill the hole. This tells the geologist if minerals are present.
• Reverse circulation and diamond drilling
Drilling a deeper, larger hole (usually 140mm or larger) through undisturbed or
deep rock using a hammer or blade bit or an industrial diamond impregnated bit.
This tells the geologist how much mineral is present.
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 STEPS INVOLVED
Step 1
The explorer may walk or drive and use hand tools on the land to collect small
samples.

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• Rock chip geochemical sampling using helicopter support.

 Step 2
If there is a regional standard heritage agreement, the explorer tries
their best to inform native title parties of what they plan to do (the
requirement to consult with indigenous title parties or traditional
owners may also be addressed in an alternative heritage agreement).
Step 3
If non-ground disturbing exploration indicates there may be minerals in
the ground, the explorer informs the traditional owners or indigenous
title parties (depending on the nature of their agreement) of plans to
drill holes in certain areas.
Step 4
If there is a heritage agreement, the traditional owners or native title
parties decide whether a heritage survey is required.
Step 5
If a heritage survey is done the report will say where drilling cannot
happen in order to protect heritage sites.
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Drillcorp Western Deephole diamond drill rig at Mt Gibson. © Barrick Gold
of Australia Ltd.

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 Step 6
Geologists and labs analyse samples taken from the drill exploration to see if
minerals are present.
Step 7
If there are minerals present the explorer will usually drill closer spaced holes
and this information is used to make:
• geological models, which help engineers estimate how much ore there is
and its quality
• resource models, which help engineers estimate how much ore reserves
there are
• feasibility studies, which help decide whether mining, processing and
marketing the ore will be profitable.
The models and studies help make estimates and decisions about whether
there will be a mine.
Step 8
If the mining company decides to start a mine, it will need to apply for a
mining lease and negotiate with all registered native title claimants. Mining
companies usually need to raise money before they can begin mining. This
can take one to two years.
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 Sampling
• Definition : This involves the taking  of small  pieces  of  rock  at   intervals  along 
exposed mineralization( mineralization is the deposition of economically important metals in
the formation of ore bodies) for  assay  to  determine  the mineral  content .   It involves
taking  a  representative  sample  of  mixed  scrap  to  enable  the mineral content  to be
determined  by  assaying.
• It is common practice in exploration to start with economic evaluations as early as
possible and to update these evaluations in parallel with the physical exploration work
with an ever improving data base.
• The purpose of this ongoing process is to have a
ready base for go and no-go decisions after each exploration stage before proceeding to
the next normally more expensive stage-drilling.
• An economic evaluation needs tonnage and
grade information to work with. In an early stage, the geologist has only a tentative
idea about expected grades of minerals and tonnages based on the initial geological concept
and
early concrete indications through observations from trenches or a limited number of
drill holes. This early idea about grades and tonnages is called grade potential and
tonnage potential.
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• At an early exploration stage, however, a sufficiently large
data base is not available for geostatistical methods. Other cruder methods have to be
applied to arrive at approximate estimates of grade and tonnage or potential grade and
tonnage.
• Consequently one frequently
deals with a mixed bag of data sets.
• For example, there might be a property with some
percussion hole data, some data from core drilling – some with good core recoveries(The
proportion of the drilled rock column recovered as core in core drilling)
some with low core recoveries – some data from chip sampling in trenches and from
bulk sampling in an exploration pit. Some holes might have been drilled at very oblique
angles in an attempt to show large apparent thicknesses to a potential buyer.
• One cannot afford to disregard low quality data. The competition for
good exploration projects is fierce, and therefore the maximum information value has
to be extracted from all data available, regardless of quality.
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 GRADE AND TONNAGE

Grade
• The amount by mass of valuable mineral in an ore, usually expressed as
troy ounces per ton (oz/ton) or grams per tonne (g/tonne) for precious
metals and as a percentage or parts per million for other minerals.
• (i) Reserve grade: estimated grade of an orebody based on the reserve
calculation.
• (ii) Cut off grade: the lowest grade of mineralized material considered
economic. Used in the calculation of ore reserves in a given deposit and for
determining waste from ore in mining.
• (iii) Mill (head) grade: the grade of mined ore going into a mill for
processing. Usually lower than reserve grade because of
• dilution.
• (iv) Recovered grade (yield): the actual grade recovered from an ore,
determined after processing.
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• Tonnage – Refers to the total amount of metal that can be extracted from any
particular ore deposit.

• Tonnage is calculated by taking into account the volume of the ore deposit, the grade
of the ore and the tenor of the ore mineral

• Ore Dressing
The preparation or concentration of ore by treatment or cleaning to remove waste
material.
• The concentration of a valuable mineral within an ore is often referred to as its
grade. Grade may exhibit considerable variation throughout a deposit.
Moreover, there is a certain grade below which it is not profitable to mine a
mineral even though it is still present in the ore. This is called the mine cutoff
grade.
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 PLANIMETER’S
A planimeter (platometer) is a measuring instrument used to determine the area of
an arbitrary two dimensional shape.
We have two common types of Planimeters: 
1. Polar planimeter  
2. Linear planimeter
• The difference is that in a polar planimeter and linear planimeter the end
opposite the tracer point is restricted to move along a circle and in a
straight line respectively.
• All Planimeters work on the same principle.
• There is a linkage, at one end is a pointer and the other is fixed for a polar 
planimeter and is restricted to move in a straight line for a linear planimter.
The pointer is traced along the perimeter of the area of the shape which
is indicated on a scale.
• There is a wheel attached to
the planimeter which rolls when the movement of the pointer is perpendicular  to
 the axis of the wheel so, this  movement  is  recorded.
• It will skid when the movement of the wheel is parallel to the axis so, this movement is
ignored. That means that
the planimeter measures the distance which is traveled by the  rolling of the wheel.
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•  The area of the shape is proportional to the  number of
turns through which the measuring wheel turns.
• The area calculations can be proved by using Green's Theorem.
• In order to find out the area, all you have to do is to trace the perimeter of
the area on the map, and note down the reading.
• To get more accurate results one should be skilled in tracing the exact
perimeter of the shape.
• You can convert the area to the field area using the scale of the map. 
1.Polar
Planimeter

2.Linear
Planimeter

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 ORE RESERVE CLASSIFICATION
Ore Reserves
The prime measured assets of a mine as to tonnage and grade that can be extracted at a profit at current prices
and technology, or in the near future. Ore reserves may be classified as proven or probable. Other reserve terms,
include geological, in-situ, measured and mineable.
Proven reserves: ore in place for which the tonnage, grade and shape have been computed from dimensions
revealed in outcrops, trenches, underground workings or drill holes. The grade is then calculated from results of
adequate sampling to a high degree of confidence.

Probable reserves: ore in place for which tonnage and grade are calculated partly from specific
measurements, samples or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geological
evidence and for which the sites available for inspection, measurement and sampling are too widely or
otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the orebody completely or establish its grade throughout.

Geological reserves: reserves of all types; proven, probable and possible

In-situ reserves : mineralization that is still in the ground. It may or may not be economically recoverable.
Measured reserves: usually proven and possible reserves.
Mineable reserves: usually proven and probable reserves that may be extracted by mining, taking into
account the mining method and the amount of waste dilution.
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 SUMMARY
• Exploration is defined as the search for mineral deposits and the work
done to prove or establish the extent of a mineral deposit.
• Sampling involves the taking  of small  pieces  of  rock  at   intervals  along 
exposed mineralization for  assay  to  determine  the mineral  content.
• Ore grade is the amount of mineral or metal contained in an ore, usually
expressed as troy ounces per ton or grams per tonne for precious metal
ore bodies.
• Ore dressing preparation or concentration of ore by treatment or
cleaning to remove waste material.
• The planimeter is a drafting instrument used to measure the area of a
graphically represented planar region.
• An ore reserve is the prime measured assets of a mine as to tonnage
and grade that can be extracted at a profit at current prices and
technology, or in the near future. Ore reserves may be classified as
proven, probable or possible.
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 CONCLUSION
Research in basic geological sciences (geophysical,
geochemical methods) and drilling technologies could improve
the effectiveness and productivity of mineral exploration.

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 REFERENCES
• WA Department of mines and petroleum, peak
industry bodies, western Australia native title
representative bodies (2009) Steps From
Mineral Exploration to a Mine: Australia.
• Persweb.Wabash.edu(2004)

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WE THANK YOU ALL FOR YOUR ATTENTION.

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