Chapter 8
Global Information Ethics
Slides prepared by Cyndi Chie and Sarah Frye. Fourth edition revisions by Sharon Gray.
Evaluating Information
The “Digital Divide”
Neo-Luddite Views of Computers, Technology,
and Quality of Life
Making Decisions About Technology
Technology and Work
Impact on Employment
Corresponding page number: 329
The Need for Responsible Judgment
Expert information or ‘wisdom of the crowd’?
Daunting amount of information on the web, much of
this information is not correct
Search engines are replacing librarians, but Web sites
are ranked by popularity, not by expert evaluation
Wisdom of the crowd - ratings by public of Web site
If millions participate, the results will be useful
Corresponding page number: 330-332
The Need for Responsible Judgment
Wikipedia
Written by volunteers, some posts are biased and not
accurate
Although anyone can write, most people do not
Those that do typically are educated and experts
Corresponding page number: 331-332
The Need for Responsible Judgment
Wisdom of the crowd
Problems of unreliable information are not new
The Web magnifies the problems
Rating systems are easy to manipulate
Vulnerable viewers
Less educated individuals
Children
Corresponding page number: 332-335
The Need for Responsible Judgment
Narrowing the information stream
Corresponding page number: 335-337
The Need for Responsible Judgment
Abdicating responsibility
People willing to let computers do their thinking
Reliance on computer systems over human judgment
may become institutionalized
Fear of having to defend your own judgment if
something goes wrong
Corresponding page number: 337-338
Computer Models
Evaluating Models
How well do the modelers understand the underlying
science or theory?
Models necessarily involve assumptions and
simplifications of reality.
How closely do the results or predictions correspond
with the results from physical experiments or real
experience?
Corresponding page number: 339-343
Computer Models
Why models may not be accurate
We might not have complete knowledge of the
system we are modeling.
The data describing current conditions or
characteristics may be incomplete or inaccurate.
Computing power may be inadequate for the
complexity of the model.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to numerically quantify
variables that represent human values and choices.
Corresponding page number: 343-347
Trends in Computer Access
New technologies only available to the wealthy
The time it takes for new technology to make its way into
common use is decreasing
Cost is not the only factor; ease of use plays a role
Entrepreneurs provide low cost options for people who
cannot otherwise afford something
Government funds technology in schools
As technology becomes more prevalent, the issues shift
from the haves and have-nots to level of service
Corresponding page number: 347-349
The Global Divide and the Next Billion Users
Approximately two billion people worldwide have access
to the Web, a fivefold increase over roughly a decade.
Approximately five billion do not use the Internet.
Non-profit organizations and huge computer companies
are spreading computer access to people in developing
countries.
Bringing new technology to poor countries is not just a
matter of money to buy equipment; PCs and laptops
must work in extreme environments.
Some people actively working to shrink the digital divide
emphasize the need to provide access in ways
appropriate to the local culture.
Corresponding page number: 349-350
Criticisms of Computing Technologies
Computers cause massive unemployment and de-skilling
of jobs.
Computers “manufacture needs”; we use them because
they are there, not because they satisfy real needs.
Computers cause social inequity
Computers cause social disintegration; they are
dehumanizing. They weaken communities and lead to
isolation of people from each other.
Corresponding page number: 352-353
Criticisms of Computing Technologies (cont.)
Computers separate humans from nature and destroy
the environment.
Computers benefit big business and big government the
most.
Use of computers in schools thwarts development of
social skills, human values, and intellectual skills in
children.
Computers do little or nothing to solve real problems.
Corresponding page number: 352-353
Views of Economics, Nature, and Human Needs
Difference in perspective between Luddites and non-
Luddites
What is the purpose of technology?
To Luddites, it is to eliminate jobs to reduce cost of
production
To non-Luddites, it is to reduce effort needed to
produce goods and services.
While both statements say nearly the same thing,
the first suggests massive unemployment, profits for
capitalists, and a poorer life for most workers. The
second suggests improvements in wealth and
standard of living.
Corresponding page number: 354-355
Does the technology create a need for itself?
Corresponding page number: 355-357
Nature and human life styles
Luddites argue that technology has made no important
improvements in life.
Many debates set up a humans-versus-nature dichotomy.
Whether a computing device is “good,” by a human-
centered standard, depends on whether it meets our
needs, how well it does so, at what cost, and how well it
compares to alternatives.
Corresponding page number: 357-358
Accomplishments of technology
Increased life expectancy
Elimination or reduction of many diseases
Increased standard of living
Assistive technologies for those with disabilities
Corresponding page number: 358-360
Discussion Questions
To what extent are Neo-Luddite criticisms
(on slides 12 and 13) valid?
Can a society choose to have certain specific
desirable modern inventions while prohibiting
undesirable ones?
Corresponding page number: 361
The Difficulty of Prediction
Each new technology finds new and unexpected uses
The history of technology is full of wildly wrong
predictions
Weizenbaum argued against developing speech
recognition technology
Mistaken expectations of costs and benefits
Should we decline a technology because of potential
abuse and ignore the benefits?
New technologies are often expensive, but costs drop
as the technology advances and the demand
increases
Corresponding page number: 362-365
Intelligent Machines and Superintelligent Humans -
Or the End of the Human Race?
Technological Singularity - point at which artificial
intelligence or some combined human-machine intelligence
advances so far that we cannot comprehend what lies on
the other side
We cannot prepare for aftermath, but prepare for more
gradual developments
Select a decision making process most likely to produce
what people want
Corresponding page number: 365-368
A Few Observations
Limit the scope of decisions about development of new
technology
Decentralize the decision-making process and make it
noncoercive, to reduce the impact of mistakes, avoid
manipulation by entrenched companies who fear
competition, and prevent violations of liberty
Corresponding page number: 368
Discussion Questions
How well can we predict the consequences of a
new technology or application?
Who would make the decisions?
Corresponding page number: 361
Changes, Fears, and Questions
The introduction of computers in the workplace
generated many fears
Mass unemployment due to increased efficiency
The need for increased skill and training widens the
earning gap
New trends still generating fears
Offshoring of jobs will lead to mass unemployment
Employers use of technology to monitor their
employees
Corresponding page number: 294
Job creation and destruction
A successful technology eliminates or reduces some jobs
but creates others
Reduced the need for telephone operators, meter
readers, mid-level managers
New industries arise
Internet
Cellular communications
Lower prices increase demand and create jobs
Music industry changed from serving the wealthy to
serving the masses, employing more than just
musicians
Corresponding page number: 295-297
Job Creation and destruction
Unemployment rates fluctuate
Growth of computers has been steady, while
unemployment has fluctuated widely
Unemployment has more to do with an economy’s ability
to adapt to change.
Corresponding page number: 298-299
Job Creation and destruction
Are we earning less?
Since the 1970s, wages decreased but fringe benefits
increased
People work fewer hours since the Industrial
Revolution
Decrease in take-home pay may be due to other
factors (e.g. increased taxes)
Purchasing power increases as prices fall
Corresponding page number: 299-300
Changing Skills and Skill Levels
New products and services based on computer
technology create jobs in design, marketing,
manufacture, sales, customer service, repair, and
maintenance.
The new jobs created from computers are different from
the jobs eliminated.
New jobs such as computer engineer and system analyst
jobs require a college degree, where jobs such as bank
tellers, customer service representatives and clerks do
not.
Companies are more willing to hire people without
specific skills when they can train new people quickly and
use automated support systems.
Corresponding page number: 300-302
Discussion Questions
What jobs have been eliminated due to technology?
What jobs that were once considered high-skill jobs
are now low-skill due to technology?
What new jobs have been created because of
technology?
Do automated systems mean fewer jobs for
high-skilled workers?
Will human intelligence in employment be “devalued”?
Corresponding page number: 295-302
Telecommuting
Working at home using a computer electronically linked to
one's place of employment
Mobile office using a laptop, working out of your car or at
customer locations
Fulltime and part-time telecommuting
Corresponding page number: 302-303
Telecommuting
Benefits
Reduces overhead for employers
Reduces need for large offices
Employees are more productive, satisfied, and loyal
Reduces traffic congestion, pollution, gasoline use, and
stress
Reduces expenses for commuting and money spent on
work clothes
Allows work to continue after blizzards, hurricanes, etc.
Corresponding page number: 303-304
Telecommuting
Problems
Employers see resentment from those who have to
work at the office
For some telecommuting employees, corporation
loyalty weakens
Odd work hours
Cost for office space has shifted to the employee
Security risks when work and personal activities
reside on the same computer
Corresponding page number: 304-305
Discussion Questions
Would you want to telecommute? Why or why not?
How has technology made entrepreneurship easier?
Harder?
Corresponding page number: 303-305
A Global Workforce
Outsourcing - phenomenon where a company pays
another company for services instead of performing
those tasks itself
Offshoring - the practice of moving business processes or
services to another country, especially overseas, to
reduce costs
Inshoring - when another company employs thousands
of people in the U.S. (e.g. offshoring for a German
company means inshoring for U.S.)
Almost 5% of U.S. workers are employed by foreign
companies
Corresponding page number: 305-308
A Global Workforce
Problems and side effects of offshoring
Consumers complain about customer service
representatives, because accents are difficult to
understand
Employees in U.S. companies need new job skills
(e.g., managing, working with foreign colleagues)
Increased demand for high-skill workers in other
countries forces salaries up
Corresponding page number: 308
A Global Workforce
Ethics of hiring foreign workers
Corresponding page number: 309-311
Learning About Job Applicants
The Web and social media provide new means of
information collection on job applicants. Employers:
search online newsgroups and social networks
hire data-collection agencies
use a variety of screening methods to efficiently
reduce a large pool of applicants to a reasonable
number
Some job-seekers attempt to clean up their online
persona.
Corresponding page number: 311-314
Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Employee monitoring is not new
Employers have always monitored their employees.
Degree of detail and frequency of monitoring has
varied depending upon kind of work, economic factors,
and available technology. (Time-clocks and logs.)
Early monitoring was mostly ‘blue-collar’ (factory) and
‘pink-collar’ (telephone and clerical) jobs
Bosses patrolled the aisles watching workers
Output counts at the end of the day
Corresponding page number: 314-315
Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Separating – or merging – work and personal
communications
Employers often prohibit employees from using their
work email, computers, and other devices for personal
use.
What about employees using personal email accounts,
social media, laptops, smartphones, and other devices
for work?
Overhead of managing and maintaining systems to
work with variety of brands and operating systems
Security of company information and operations
Corresponding page number: 315-316
Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Monitoring employer systems
Roughly half of major companies in U.S. sometimes
monitor the email or voice mail of their employees on
company systems.
Most companies monitor infrequently, some routinely
intercept all email.
Corresponding page number: 316-317
Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Monitoring employer systems
Many major companies use software tools that provide
reports on employee Web use.
Employees spend time on nonwork activities on the
Web
Some companies block specific sites (e.g. adult
content, sports sites, job search sites, social-network
sites)
Corresponding page number: 316-317
Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Monitoring employer systems
Purposes of monitoring employee communications
include training, measuring or increasing productivity,
checking compliance with rules for communication,
and detecting behavior that threatens the employer
in some way.
Concerns over security threats such as viruses and
other malicious software
Concerns about inappropriate activities by employees
(e.g., harassment, unprofessional comment)
Corresponding page number: 316-318
Law and cases for employer systems
Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) prohibits
interception of email and reading stored email without a
court order, but makes an exception for business systems
Courts put heavy weight on the fact that computers, mail,
and phone systems are owned by the employer who
provides them for business purposes
Corresponding page number: 318-320
Law and cases for employer systems
Courts have ruled against monitoring done to snoop on
personal and union activities or to track down whistle
blowers.
Court decisions sometimes depend on whether an
employee had a reasonable “expectation of privacy.”
Many employers have privacy policies regarding email and
voice mail.
The National Labor Relation Board (NLRB) sets rules and
decides cases about worker-employer relations.
Corresponding page number: 318-320
Personal social media
Basing disciplinary action on personal, nonwork social
media is more controversial because it extends employer
control beyond the workplace.
Content in social media is often widely distributed; thus
impact is stronger than that of a private conversation.
Employer restrictions on nonwork social media do not
violate employee’s freedom of speech (unless, in some
cases, when the employer is the government).
Corresponding page number: 320-321
Discussion Questions
It is reasonable for employers to fire employees for content
of their blogs, tweets, or posts on social networks?
Are there good reasons for employers to be concerned
about what their employees post in such places?
Corresponding page number: 320-321
Monitoring location and equipment usage
Electronic identification badges that serve as door keys
Provide increased security
Allow monitoring of employee movement
Corresponding page number: 321-322
Monitoring location and equipment usage
GPS tracks an employee's location
Used in some hospitals to track nurse locations for
emergency purposes, also shows where they are at
lunch or when they use the bathroom
Used to track long-haul trucks to reduce theft and
optimize delivery schedules, also detects driving
speeds and duration of rest breaks
Employees often complain of loss of privacy
Corresponding page number: 321-322
Discussion Questions
How much privacy is reasonable for an employee to
expect in the workplace?
Under what circumstances is it appropriate for an
employer to read an employee's email?
Corresponding page number: 311- 322
