Unit-III

Sample & Sampling

Distribution
Content
 Population,
 Census and Sample, Sampling,
 Importance of Sampling, Sampling Design,
 Steps in Sampling Design,
 Types of Sample designs-Probability & Non Probability
Sampling, Sampling error.
 Sample Size,
 Determination of Sample Size,
 Sampling Error,
 Non Sampling Error.
Objectives
 Basic Terminology.
 Why sample?
 Sampling methods.
 Describe the sampling distribution of the sample
mean.
 Explain the central limit theorem.
 Define the standard error of the mean.
 Apply the central limit theorem to find probabilities
of selecting possible sample means from a
specified population.

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Basic Terminology
 Element: An element is the entity on which
the data are collected.
 Population: A population is the collection of
all the element of interest.
 Sample: A sample is a subset of the
population.
 Population frame :A list, map, directory, or other
source used to represent the population
 Census: A census is an investigation of all the
individual elements making up the population—a
total listing rather than a sample.
Why Sample the Population?
1. To contact the whole population would be
time consuming.
2. The cost of studying all the items in a
population may be prohibitive.
3. The physical impossibility of checking all
items in the population.
4. The destructive nature of some tests.
5. The sample results are adequate.
The reason we select a sample is to collect data
to make an inference and answer research
question about a population.
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Steps involve in sampling
Sample design
 A sample design is a definite plan for obtain a
sample from a given population (Kothari, 1998).
It helps to decide the number of items to be
selected in the sample i.e. the size of the
sample. Purpose of sampling is to estimate an
unknown characteristic of a population. It is all
about selecting a random sample which is true
representative of the population under study.
Sampling design refers to the technique or procedure, the researcher undergoes for
selecting items as samples from the population or universe.
Types of sampling
Types of Probability Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling
 Cluster (or Area) Sampling
 Multistage sampling
Types of non probability
sampling
 Convenience sampling
 Judgment sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Quota sampling
Probability Sampling

A probability sample is a sample

selected such that each item or
person in the population being
studied has a known likelihood of
being included in the sample.

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Most Commonly Used Probability
Sampling Methods

 Simple Random Sample

 Systematic Random
Sampling
 Stratified Random
Sampling
 Cluster Sampling

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Simple Random Sample
Simple Random Sample: A sample selected so that each
item or person in the population has the same chance of
being included.
With Replacement(SRSWR)
Without Replacement(SRSWOR)

EXAMPLE:
A population consists of 845 employees of Ford. A sample of 52
employees is to be selected from that population. The name of
each employee is written on a small slip of paper and deposited
all of the slips in a box. After they have been thoroughly mixed,
the first selection is made by drawing a slip out of the box without
looking at it. This process is repeated until the sample of 52
employees is chosen.
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Simple Random Sample: Using
Table of Random Numbers
A population consists of 845 employees of Ford. A sample of 52
employees is to be selected from that population.
A more convenient method of selecting a random sample is to use
the identification number of each employee and a table of
random numbers.

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Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling: The items or individuals of the
population are arranged in some order. A random starting point is
selected and then every kth member of the population is selected for
the sample.

EXAMPLE
A population consists of 845 employees of Ford. A sample of 52
employees is to be selected from that population.
First, k is calculated as the population size divided by the sample
size. For the company, we would select every 16th (845/52)
employee list. If k is not a whole number, then round down.
Random sampling is used in the selection of the first name. Then,
select every 16th name on the list thereafter.

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Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling: A population is first divided into
subgroups, called strata, and a sample is selected from each stratum.
Useful when a population can be clearly divided in groups based on
some characteristics

Suppose we want to study the advertising

expenditures for the 352 largest companies
in the country to determine whether firms
with high returns on equity (a measure of
profitability) spent more of each sales dollar
on advertising than firms with a low return
or deficit.

To make sure that the sample is a fair

representation of the 352 companies, the
companies are grouped on percent return
on equity and a sample proportional to the
relative size of the group is randomly
selected.

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Example
Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling: A population is divided into clusters using naturally
occurring geographic or other boundaries. Then, clusters are
randomly selected and a sample is collected by randomly selecting
from each cluster.

Suppose you want to determine the views

of student in the country about their
university educational pattern.

Cluster sampling can be used by

subdividing the country into small units—
either state wise or region wise, select at
random say 4 regions, then take samples
of the residents in each of these regions
and interview them. (Note that this is a
combination of cluster sampling and simple
random sampling.)

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Example
D
Quota Sampling
 In many large-scale applications of
sampling procedures, it is not always
possible or desirable to list all members of
the population and randomly select
elements from that list. The reasons for
using any alternative procedures include
cost, timeliness, and convenience. One
alternative procedure is quota sampling.
Convenience Sampling
 Convenience sampling is used because it is quick,
inexpensive, and convenient. Convenience samples are
useful for certain purposes, and they require very little
planning. Researchers simply use participants who are
available at the moment. The procedure is casual and easy,
relative to random sampling. Contrast using any available
participants with random sampling, where you must
(1) have a well-defined population,
(2) construct a list of members of the population if one is not
available,
(3) sample randomly from the list, and
(4) contact and use as many individuals from the list as possible.
Convenience sampling requires far less effort. However, such
convenience comes with potential problems, which we will
describe. Convenience samples are nonprobability samples.
Therefore, it is not possible to specify the probability of any
population element’s being selected for the sample. Indeed, it is
not possible to specify the population from which the sample was
drawn.
Example: A number of examples of convenience sampling can
be given. In shopping malls or airports, individuals are selected
as they pass a certain location and interviewed concerning
issues, candidates, or other matters. Phone surveys may be
based on anyone answering the phone between the hours of 9
A.M. and 5 P.M. Politicians use convenience sampling to
determine the attitudes of those they represent when they report
on the number of letters voluntarily sent to them by their
constituents.
Sampling Error
The sampling error is the difference
between a sample statistic and its
corresponding population parameter.
Examples:
X 
s 
s2   2
p 
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Case Analysis
 On April 20, 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold entered Columbine
High School and began shooting teachers and students. Thirteen
individuals died, and the psychological community was again asked
to explain such violent behavior. A psychologist might decide to
interview Columbine students to obtain their perspectives on the
factors that motivated the two young men to commit such a
horrendous act. A group of ten students has already decided to
meet and discuss the events of that day. The psychologist asks if it
would be all right to attend the meeting and ask them some
questions. The students agree, and the psychologist records their
thoughts. Based on this information, the psychologist concludes that
a primary reason for the violent behavior was the peer dynamics in
the school that created groups of outcasts.
Critical Thinking Questions
 Who appears to constitute the population of
interest?
 Which type of sampling procedure best
describes that used by the psychologist?
 What are the limitations of this sampling method,
and in what specific ways could the sampling
 method have affected the findings?
 What specific steps would you have taken to
obtain a representative sample?
Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Mean(x)
The sampling distribution of
the sample mean(x) is a
probability distribution consisting
of all possible sample means of a
given sample size selected from
a population.

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Sampling Distribution of the Sample
Means - Example
Tartus Industries has seven production employees (considered the
population). The hourly earnings of each employee are given in the
table below.

1. What is the population mean?

2. What is the sampling distribution of the sample mean for samples of size 2?
3. What is the mean of the sampling distribution?
4. What observations can be made about the population and the sampling
distribution?

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Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Means - Example

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Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Means - Example

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Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Means - Example

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Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Means - Example

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Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Means - Example

These observations can be made:

a. The mean of the distribution of the sample mean ($7.71) is equal to the mean of the
population
b. The spread in the distribution of the sample mean is less than the spread in the
population values. As size of the sample is increased, the spread of the distribution of the
sample mean becomes smaller.
c. The shape of the sampling distribution of the sample mean and the shape of the
frequency distribution of the population values are different. The distribution of the sample
mean tends to be more bell-shaped and to approximate the normal probability distribution.

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Properties of sampling distribution
 Expected Value of x equals the mean of the population
from which the sample is selected.
 E(x)=μ
Where μ is population mean
 Standard Deviation of x
N n   
For Finite population: x 
N  1  n 
For Infinite population: 
x 
n
N n
Where
N 1
is known as Finite population correction (FPC)

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Use the following expression to compute the
standard deviation of x

x 
n
Whenever,
1. The population is infinte; or
2. The population is finite & and the sample size is less than or equal to 5% of the
population size; that is n / N  0.05

• Form of the sampling distribution of x

The final step in identifying the characteristics of the sampling distribution of x is to
determine the form or shape of the sampling distribution. We consider two cases
1. Population has a normal distribution: When the population from which we are
selecting a random sample has a normal or nearly normal distribution, the sampling
distribution of x is normally distributed for any sample size.
2. Population does not have a normal distribution: When the population from which
we are selecting a random sample does not has a normal distribution, the Central
Limit Theorem(CLT) is helpful in identifying the shape of the sampling distribution of
x. 21
Central Limit Theorem
CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM If all samples of a particular size are
selected from any population, the sampling distribution of the sample
mean is approximately a normal distribution. This approximation
improves with larger samples.

 If the population follows a normal probability distribution, then for

any sample size the sampling distribution of the sample mean will
also be normal.
 If the population distribution is symmetrical (but not normal), the
normal shape of the distribution of the sample mean emerge with
samples as small as 10.
 If a distribution that is skewed or has thick tails, it may require
samples of 30 or more to observe the normality feature.
 The mean of the sampling distribution equal to μ and the variance
equal to σ2/n.
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41
Standard Error of the Mean

1. The mean of the distribution of sample means will be exactly

equal to the population mean if we are able to select all
possible samples of the same size from a given population.

2. There will be less dispersion in the sampling distribution of the

sample mean than in the population. As the sample size
increases, the standard error of the mean decreases

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Using the Sampling
Distribution of the Sample Mean (Sigma Known)

 If a population follows the normal distribution, the sampling

distribution of the sample mean will also follow the normal
distribution.
 If the shape is known to be nonnormal, but the sample contains
at least 30 observations, the central limit theorem guarantees the
sampling distribution of the mean follows a normal distribution.
 To determine the probability a sample mean falls within a
particular region, use:

X 
z
 n
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Using the Sampling
Distribution of the Sample Mean
(Sigma Unknown)
 If the population does not follow the normal
distribution, but the sample is of at least 30
observations, the sample means will follow the
normal distribution.
 To determine the probability a sample mean falls
within a particular region, use:

X 
t
s n
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Using the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
(Sigma Known) - Example
The Quality Assurance Department for Cola, Inc., maintains records
regarding the amount of cola in its Jumbo bottle. The actual amount
of cola in each bottle is critical, but varies a small amount from one
bottle to the next. Cola, Inc., does not wish to under fill the bottles.
On the other hand, it cannot overfill each bottle. Its records indicate
that the amount of cola follows the normal probability distribution.
The mean amount per bottle is 31.2 ounces and the population
standard deviation is 0.4 ounces.
At 8 A.M. today the quality technician randomly selected 16 bottles
from the filling line. The mean amount of cola contained in the
bottles is 31.38 ounces.
Is this an unlikely result? Is it likely the process is putting too much
soda in the bottles? To put it another way, is the sampling error of
0.18 ounces unusual?

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Using the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
(Sigma Known) - Example

Step 1: Find the z-value corresponding to the

sample mean of 31.38

X   31.38  31.20
z   1.80
 n $0.4 16

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Using the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
(Sigma Known) - Example

Step 2: Find the probability of observing a Z equal

to or greater than 1.80

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Using the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
(Sigma Known) - Example

What do we conclude?
It is unlikely, less than a 4 percent chance, we could
select a sample of 16 observations from a normal
population with a mean of 31.2 ounces and a
population standard deviation of 0.4 ounces and
find the sample mean equal to or greater than
31.38 ounces.
We conclude the process is putting too much
cola in the bottles.

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Numerical Examples:
The mean length of certain manufactured tool is 41.5 hrs with S.D of 2.5
hrs. what is the probability that a simple random sample size 50
drawn from the population will have a mean length between 40.5 to
42 hrs?
Solution: Given; μ=41.5hrs
σ =2.5 hrs, n=50
P(40.5≤ x ≤ 42)=?
Based on this info, the statistics of the sampling distribution are computed as
 2.5
x    0.354
n 50
Normal dist., x1   40.5  41.5
z1    2.828
/ n 0.354

x2   42  41.5
z2    1.41
/ n 0.354
 So Standard error of sample mean,
P(-2.828≤ z ≤1.414) =P(z≤1.41)-P(z≤-2.83)
=0.9207-0.0023
=0.9184( ≈92%)
Thus, we can conclude that 0.9182 is the probability of the tool
having the mean between required values.
Sampling Distribution of the
proportion Mean(p)
The sampling distribution of
the proportion mean(p) is a
probability distribution consisting
of all possible values of the
sample proportion.
x
p  ; where x  number of elements in sample of int erest
n
& n is sample size

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Properties of sampling distribution
 Expected Value of p equals the mean of all the possible
values of p and is equal to population proportion.
E ( p )  p; where p is population proportion
 Standard Deviation of x

For Finite population: N  n p(1  p )

p 
N 1 n

For Infinite population: p(1  p)

p 
n
Where
is known as Finite population correction (FPC)

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Use the following expression to compute the
standard deviation of p
p(1  p )
p 
n

Whenever,
1. The population is infinte; or
2. The population is finite & and the sample size is less than or equal to 5% of the
population size; that is n / N  0.05

• Form of the sampling distribution of p

The final step in identifying the characteristics of the sampling
distribution of p can be approximated by normal distribution
whenever np ≥ 5 and n(1-p) ≥ 5.

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