A PRESENTATION

ON
POWER QUALITY

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

HARMONICS

[ In 27 Slides ]
 The Term - Power Quality

The term power quality broadly refers

to maintaining a continuous
and nearly sinusoidal power
to distribution bus,
maintaining
voltage and frequency
at their rated values.
What Are The Major Describing Parameters Of Power Quality ?

According to IEEE Std 1159-1995, electromagnetic

compatibility describes the power quality phenomena.
Physically, the quality of power supply is expressed in terms of:

– Uninterrupted supply of power

– Constant voltage

– Constant frequency

– Pure Sinusoidal Wave of Supply

 What Are The Disturbing Factors Working Against
Maintenance of Quality of Power ?

Principal phenomena causing Electromagnetic

Disturbances are:
Transients (Oscillatory transients, Unidirectional
transients), Electromagnetic fields, Electric fields, Magnetic
fields, Radiated high-frequency phenomena, Induced
continuous wave voltages or currents, Conducted low /
high-frequency phenomena, DC in ac networks, Induced
low-frequency voltages, Power-frequency variations,
Voltage imbalance, Voltage dips and interruptions, Voltage
fluctuations, Harmonics, Inter-harmonics, Sub-harmonics
etc.
 What Causes Power Quality Problems ?

• At Generation Level:

- A well designed power plant normally generates pure sine

wave voltage.

- Non-uniform excitation magnetic field, discrete spatial

distribution of coils in stator slots may introduce distortion
which is normally < 1%.

- Grid connected Distributed Generators introduce harmonics

depending on load sensitivity and robustness of the grid.

- Switching of energy storage devices, etc.

 What Causes …

• At Transmission Level:

- System damping is low due to low R/L ratio of

transmission system. Hence, a poor power quality at
distribution has an impact on transmission system.

-Transmission lines, greatly exposed to atmosphere,

suffer lightning stroke or arcing between
sagging conductors due to wind, resulting in
momentary transients.

- Dust deposition on insulator leads to flashover during

rains, causing voltage sag, followed by voltage
swell.

- Use of Converters, Switching of Capacitors, Switching

of Large Loads (on feeders) etc.
 What Causes …
• At Distribution Level:
Non linear loads due to application of Power Electronics
Devices in such as:

- Adjustable Speed Drives: Speed control till 1970s was done

by deploying belt–pulley arrangement. Introduction of
converters develops double humps of 600 duration each in
each half cycle. Humps are pronounced for lower frequencies.

- Switched Mode Power Supply in Computers: CPU and Monitor

draw about 2 amperes, while their THD is > 100% because of
high IHDs. They inject 3rd and 5th harmonics in the system.

- Other non linear controllers used in Home Appliances.

- Fluorescent Light: Develops 3rd , 5th and traces of even

harmonics.
 Disturbances

In a crude way, the disturbances can be categorized as:

• Steady State Wave form Distortion: DC Offset, Harmonics,

Notching.

• Transient Waveform Distortion: Transients (Oscillatory,

Unidirectional), Voltage Sag, Voltage swell, Flicker,
Intermittent interruption, Voltage imbalance, Faults etc.

• Permanent Change: Interruption.

 Waveforms Showing Some Disturbances
Voltage Sags

Transients

Voltage swells

Interruptions

Harmonics

Noise

Power Frequency Variation

 Harmonic Studies

• Every non linear load draws current which is symmetrical

but its wave shape does not follow the applied voltage
waveform. Such a current is said to have harmonics which
can be obtained by Fourier analysis.

• The current containing harmonics flows through the

source up to the non linear load, thereby causing voltage
drop containing harmonics. Thus, the current harmonics
leads to injection of harmonics in the voltage as well.
 Harmonics – An Important Power Quality Issue

• Why are the harmonics represented by integers in place of hertz?

- Because supply frequency is not the same all over the world

In US - 60 Hz

In Europe, Asia – 50 Hz

In Aerospace equipment – 400 Hz

In Traction – 25 Hz
 Harmonics – An Important…

• Harmonics – Frequency is in Integers (Most Common)

• Subharmonics – Frequency is less than Fundamental (when L & C resonate

in Power System – very rare)

• Interharmonics - Frequency is not in Integers (In Arc Welders, Arc Furnace)

• Odd Harmonics – Generated by Non-linear loads (most prevalent)

• Even Harmonics – Generated by Transformers, Arc furnaces (during

starting)

• DC Components – Develop saturation in transformers leading to Core

vibration, Core heating, Increased Excitation current
and Losses.
 Harmonics: In Space-Time Frame

• Harmonic order = n

• n = 1 ; Fundamental waveform

• If (n-1)/3 = Integer, then this harmonic has +ve phase

sequence

• If (n-2)/3 = Integer, then this harmonic has -ve phase

sequence

• If n = multiple of 3 (Triplen Harmonic), then this harmonic

has Zero phase sequence
 Harmonics In Converters

• In Converters, the even harmonics are absent.

• In addition to the triplen harmonics, the following
harmonics are also generated.

In 6 pulse converter

n = (6 q (+/-)1); where q = 1,2,3,….

In 12 pulse converter

n = (12 q (+/-)1); where q = 1,2,3,….

 Harmonics – Distortion Parameters

1. IHD - Individual Harmonic Distortion

Knowledge of IHD is important from filter design point of view.

Say, (I H D)n = Individual Harmonic Distortion for nth harmonic.

• As per IEEE [Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers] definition:

(I H D)n = I n (RMS) / I 1 (RMS)
Hence as per IEEE the IHD for fundamental (I H D)1 = 100%

• As per IEC [International Electrotechnical Commission] definition:

(I H D)n = I n (RMS) / I Total (RMS)
Where I Total (RMS) = [I12 + I22 + I32 + ………+ In2] 1/2

Hence as per IEC the IHD for fundamental (I H D)1 < 100%
 Harmonics – Distortion Parameters…

2. THD - Total Harmonic Distortion

It gives the net deviation of a distorted waveform from its

ideal sinusoidal waveform characteristic.
In other words, it gives the degree of pollution in the
current or voltage waveform.

• % (T H D) = [ ∑∞n=2 In2 / I12] 1/2 x 100

Or in terms of IEEE standards,

• % (T H D) = [(I H D) 2
2 + (I H D) 3
2 +…..+(I H D) n
2 ] 1/2
 Harmonics – Distortion Parameters…

3. TDD - Total Demand Distortion

• This term applies to Current Distortion only.

• It is the total RMS current distortion expressed as

percentage of the maximum demand averaged over 15
-20 minutes.
 Harmonics – Distortion Parameters…

4. DPF - Displacement Power Factor

• Without harmonics in the system, the power factor is

Cos Ø = P / V1 RMS I1 RMS

• With harmonics, the power factor is given by DPF

Cos Ø’ = P / VRMS I RMS

• Cos Ø’ is not equal to Cos Ø

 Impact of Harmonics - In General

Some of the possible adverse effects of harmonics:

- Mal-operation of sophisticated control of equipment/

appliances (such as Protective instruments,
Signaling systems, Microprocessor / Micro Controller
chips used in control circuits of elevator, street
light, water heater etc).

- Fast aging / Loss of life of equipment.

- Interference in Radio, Telephone and TV.

 Impact of Harmonics In Transformers

• Frequency of harmonics is high. Therefore, additional Eddy

current losses and Hysteresis losses take place.

• Net rms current increases due to harmonics. Therefore,

Copper losses also increase.

• The above leads to Derating of Transformers. The Derated

(or the ‘k’ factor) rating of transformer allows it to carry the
harmonic currents safely.
 Derating of Transformers

• IEC Code: ‘k’ Factor

• k factor= (I H D)12(1) 2+ (I H D)22(2) 2+ (I H D)32(3) 2+ …..(I H D)n2(n) 2

• = ∑(I H D)n2(h) 2 ; h=1,2,3,….n

• The typical ‘k’ factor are – 4,9,13,20,30,40 and 50.

• ‘k’ factor should not be less than the nearest typical value of it.

• e.g. for calculated ‘k’ factor = 4.6, it should be chosen as 9.

 Derating of Transformers…

• IEEE Code:

• ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.110-1998 recommended practice for establishing transformer capability

when supplying non sinusoidal load currents.

• R = (Max Non linear current of specified harmonic) / (Rated Current)

• Rh max (pu) = [PLL-R (pu) ÷ 1+ { ∑fh 2 h 2 / ∑ fh 2 } PEC-R (pu) ]1/2

Where h = Order of harmonic,
fh = Ih / I1 for a given load,
PEC-R (pu) = PEC / Rated I2 R loss,
PEC = Rated eddy current loss
= kEC x Ih 2 x h 2 ; kEC = proportionality constant
PLL-R (pu) = PLL-R / Rated load I2 R loss
PLL-R = Rated load loss = ∑ Ih 2 + ∑ (Ih 2 x h 2 ) PEC-R

If triplen harmonics are large, oversize neutral wire should be used.

 Impact of Harmonics In AC Motors

• The harmonics increase core and copper losses in the machines.

• The currents due to +ve sequence, -ve sequence harmonics will try to
rotate the rotor in forward and reverse directions respectively. The zero
sequence harmonics will not affect.

• They induce different frequency currents. Interaction of these currents

with field develops torsional oscillation on shaft. If this frequency equals
the natural frequency of the shaft, severe damage to machine will
result.

• Therefore, abnormal / excessive noise/ vibration must be carefully

attended.

• Normally large motors deploying ASD are supplied with filters.

 Impact of Harmonics In Other Devices

• Bus Bars: In case loads rich in harmonics are supplied, the size of the
neutral Bus Bar should be kept double to that of Phase Bus Bars.

• Capacitor Banks: These can operate at 110% over voltage and 135%
Over rated kVARs. Failure may occur if the limits mentioned are crossed.
The capacitors, sometimes, resonate with the system inductance causing
damage due to high resonant currents.

• Cables: Due to high Harmonic frequencies, the skin effect gets enhanced.
Skin Effect Constant is given by the manufacturers.

• Protective Devices: Electromechanical relays get adversely affected by

the harmonics.
 Guidelines for Harmonic Voltage and Current Limitation

• IEEE 519 -1992 Standard is there for Practices and requirements for
harmonic control in power system at the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC) between utility and the facility.
• Isc= Max S/C current at PCC
• IL = Max fundamental Frequency demand at PCC (averaged over past
12 months)

Isc / IL %THD (permitted harmonic injection)

h<11 11<h<17 17<h<23 23<h<35 35<h TDD
< 20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20 – 50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50 – 100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100 – 1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
> 1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
 Guidelines for…

Bus Voltage Individual Total Voltage

at PCC distribution distortion
% THD

<69 kV 3% 5%
69 – 161 kV 1.5% 2.5%
>161 kV 1% 1.5%
 Harmonic Mitigation

• Design of the equipment should be such that it prevents

harmonics. E.g. the converters can be made having larger
number of pulses, but then it becomes costlier and
complicated.
• Use of ZigZag connection of transformer winding acts as a
third harmonic filter.
• Use of Harmonic Filters.
– Passive Filters use L and C in series kept across the load
which acts as a source of harmonics. They are designed
for nearer interharmonics so as to prevent them
resonating with the source impedance.
– Active filters are adaptive filters which act based on
current fed back to them. These are costlier and
complicated.