STIM5013 IT For Manager

Topic Eight
Information Systems Development

Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 1

Chapter 14
Objectives Overview

Discuss the importance of

project management,
Define system development
Identify the guidelines for feasibility assessment,
and list the system
system development documentation, and data
development phases
and information gathering
techniques

Explain the activities Discuss the purpose of the

Describe the various tools
performed in the planning activities performed in the
used in process modeling
phase analysis phase

See Page 619 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 2

for Detailed Objectives Chapter 12
Objectives Overview

Recognize the develop

Describe the various Explain the activities
programs activity is
tools used in object performed in the
part of system
modeling design phase
development

Discuss the purpose of

Discuss the activities the activities performed
performed in the in the operation,
implementation phase support, and security
phase

See Page 619 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 3

for Detailed Objectives Chapter 12
What is System Development?

System development is a set of activities

used to build an information system
An information
system (IS) is a System development
A system is a set of collection of activities are grouped
components that hardware, software, into phases, and is
interact to achieve a data, people, and called the system
common goal procedures that work development life
together to produce cycle (SDLC)
quality information

Page 620 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 4

Chapter 12
What is System Development?

Pages 620 – 621 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 5

Figure 12-1 Chapter 12
What is System Development?

• System development should follow three general

guidelines:

Group activities or tasks into phases

Involve users

Define standards

Page 621 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 6

Chapter 12
What is System Development?
• System development should involve representatives from each
department in which the proposed system will be used

Page 622 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 7

Figure 12-2 Chapter 12
What is System Development?

• Project management is the process of planning,

scheduling, and then controlling the activities during
system development
• To plan and schedule a project efficiently, the project
leader identifies:
Required Time estimates
Project scope
activities for each activity

Activities that
Cost estimates Order of
can take place at
for each activity activities
the same time
Page 623 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 8
Chapter 12
What is System Development?

A popular tool
used to plan
and schedule
the time
relationships
among project
activities is a
Gantt chart

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click Chapter 12, Click Web
Link from left navigation,
then click Gantt Charts below
Chapter 12
Page 623 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 9
Figure 12-3a Chapter 12
What is System Development?

A PERT chart
also can be
used for
planning and
scheduling time

Click to view Web Link,

click Chapter 12, Click Web
Link from left navigation,
then click PERT Charts below
Chapter 12
Page 624 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 10
Figure 12-3b Chapter 12
What is System Development?

• Feasibility is a measure of how suitable the

development of a system will be to the
organization

Operational Schedule Technical Economic

feasibility feasibility feasibility feasibility

Pages 624 - 625 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 11

Chapter 12
What is System Development?

• Documentation is the collection and

summarization of data and information
– A project notebook contains all documentation for a
single project
• Users and IT professionals refer to existing
documentation when working with and modifying
current systems

Page 625 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 12

Chapter 12
What is System Development?

• During system development, members of the project

team gather data and information using several
techniques
Review
documentation Observe

Survey Interview
Pages 625 – 626 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 13
Figure 12-4 Chapter 12
Who Initiates a System
Development Project?

A user may request a new or modified system

Organizations may want to improve hardware, software, or other technology

Situations beyond an organization’s control might require a change

Management might mandate a change

A user may request a new or modified information system using a request for system
services or a project request

Page 626 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 14

Chapter 12
Who Initiates a System
Development Project?

Page 627 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 15

Figure 12-5 Chapter 12
Planning Phase

• The planning phase for a project begins when the

steering committee receives a project request
• Four major activities are performed:

Review and
Prioritize the Form a project
approve the Allocate
project development
project resources
requests team
requests

Page 628 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 16

Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• The analysis phase consists of two major

activities:
Conduct a
Perform
preliminary
detailed analysis
investigation
●
●
Determines and defines the ●
●
Study how the current
exact nature of the problem system works
or improvement ●
Determine the users’ wants,
●
Interview the user who needs, and requirements
submitted the request ●
Recommend a solution
Pages 629 - 631 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 17
Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

Click to view Web Link,

click Chapter 12, Click Web
Link from left navigation,
then click Feasibility Study
below Chapter 12
Pages 629 – 630 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 18
Figure 12-6 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• Process modeling (structured analysis and design) is an

analysis and design technique that describes processes
that transform inputs into outputs
Entity-
relationship
Data flow
diagrams diagrams

Project
Click to view Web Link,
click Chapter 12, Click Web
Link from left navigation,
then click Process Modeling
below Chapter 12
Page 631
dictionary Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World
Chapter 12
19
Analysis Phase

• An entity-relationship
diagram (ERD) is a tool
that graphically shows
the connections among
entities in a system
• Entities are objects in
the system that have
data

Page 632 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 20

Figure 12-7 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• A data flow diagram

(DFD) is a tool that
graphically shows the
flow of data in a system
– Data flows
– Processes
– Data stores
– Sources

Page 632 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 21

Figure 12-8 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• The project dictionary contains all the

documentation and deliverables of a project
• Structured English is a
style of writing that
describes the steps in
a process

Page 633 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 22

Figure 12-9 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

A decision table is a table that lists a variety of

conditions and the actions that correspond to each
condition

A decision tree also shows conditions and actions,

but it shows them graphically

Page 633 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 23

Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

Decision table Decision tree

Page 633 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 24

Figures 12-10 – 12-11 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• The data dictionary stores the data item’s name,

description, and other details about each data
item

Page 634 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 25

Figure 12-12 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• Object modeling combines the data with the processes

that act on that data into a single unit, called an object
• UML (Unified Modeling Language) has been adopted as a
standard notation for object modeling and development
– UML includes 13 different diagrams
– Two diagrams include:

Use case Class

Click to view Web Link,
click Chapter 12, Click Web
diagram diagram
Link from left navigation,
then click UML
below Chapter 12
Page 634 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 26
Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• A use case diagram

graphically shows how
actors (users) interact
with the information
system
• Diagrams are
considered easy to
understand

Page 634 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 27

Figure 12-13 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• A class diagram
graphically shows
classes and subclasses
in a system
• Each class can have one
or more subclasses
• Subclasses use
inheritance to inherit
methods and attributes
of higher levels
Page 635 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 28
Figure 12-14 Chapter 12
Analysis Phase

• The system proposal assesses the feasibility of

each alternative solution
• The steering committee discusses the system
proposal and decides which alternative to pursue
Packaged Custom
software software
Click to view Web Link,
click Chapter 12, Click Web
Link from left navigation,

Pages 635 - 636

Outsourci
then click Vertical Market
Software below Chapter 12
Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World
Chapter 12
29
Design Phase

• The design phase consists of two major activities

Acquire Develop all of the
details of the new or
hardware and modified information
software system

Page 638 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 30

Chapter 12
Design Phase

• To acquire the necessary hardware and software:

●
Use research techniques such as e-zines

Identify technical specifications

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click Chapter 12, Click Web
Link from left navigation,
then click E-Zines below
Chapter 12
Pages 638 - 640 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 31
Chapter 12
Design Phase

• The next step is to develop detailed design

specifications
– Sometimes called a physical design

Database Input and

design output design

Program
Page 640 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World
Chapter 12
32
Design Phase

• Systems analysts typically develop two types of

designs for each input and output
Mockup Layout chart

Page 641 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 33

Figures 12-18 – 12-19 Chapter 12
Design Phase

• A prototype (proof of concept) is a working model

of the proposed system
– Prototypes have inadequate or missing documentation
– Users tend to embrace the prototype as a final system
– Should not eliminate or replace activities

Pages 641 - 642 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 34

Chapter 12
Design Phase

• Computer-aided software engineering (CASE)

tools are designed to support one or more
activities of system development
• CASE tools sometimes contain the following tools:
Project
repository
Graphics
Click to view Web Link,
click Chapter 12, Click Web
Link from left navigation,
then click CASE Tools
below Chapter 12
Prototypin Quality
Page 642 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 35
Chapter 12
Design Phase

Page 642 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 36

Figure 12-20 Chapter 12
Design Phase

• Many people should review the detailed design

specifications
• An inspection is a formal review of any system
development deliverable
– A team examines the deliverables to identify errors

Page 642 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 37

Chapter 12
Implementation Phase

• The purpose of the implementation phase is to

construct the new or modified system and then
deliver it

Develop Install and test Convert to the

Train users
programs the new system new system

Page 643 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 38

Chapter 12
Implementation Phase

• The program development life cycle follows these

steps: 1 Analyze the requirements
●
●

2 Design the solution

●
●

3 Validate the design

●
●

4 Implement the design

●
●

5 Test the solution

●
●

6 Document the solution

●
●

Page 643 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 39

Chapter 12
Implementation Phase

• Various tests should be performed on the new

system

Unit System Integra Accepta

test s test tion test nce test
●
Verifies that Verifies that all
● ●
Verifies that Checks the
●

each individual programs in an an application new system

program or application works with to ensure that
object works work together other it works with
by itself properly applications actual data
Page 644 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 40
Chapter 12
Implementation Phase

• Training involves showing users exactly how they

will use the new hardware and software in the
system
– One-on-one sessions
– Classroom-style lectures
– Web-based training

Page 644 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 41

Figure 12-21 Chapter 12
Implementation Phase

• One or more of four conversion strategies can be

used to change from the old system to the new
system

Pages 644 – 645 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 42

Figure 12-22 Chapter 12
Operation, Support, and Security Phase

• The purpose of the operation, support, and

security phase is to provide ongoing assistance for
an information system and its users after the
system is implemented
Perform Monitor
Assess
mainten system
ance
system
perform
activities ance
security
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Link from left navigation,
then click Chief Security
Officer below Chapter 12
Page 645 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 43
Chapter 12
Operation, Support, and Security Phase

• A computer security plan should do the following:

For each risk, identify

Identify all information Identify all security the safeguards that
assets of an risks that may cause an exist to detect,
organization information asset loss prevent, and recover
from a loss

Page 646 Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 44

Chapter 12
Alternatives to Conventional SDLCs

Four Possibilities:
a. Prototyping
b. Joint Application Design
c. Rapid Application
Development
d. Component Based
Development
Prototyping

• Working model of a proposed system

• Instead of spending a lot of time producing very detailed

specifications, the developers find out only what the users
want developers quickly create a prototype.

• This approach is also known as evolutionary development.

Joint Application Design

• Joint application design (JAD) is a group-based method for

collecting user requirements and creating system designs.

• In contrast to the SDLC requirements analysis, JAD has a

group meeting in which all users meet simultaneously with
analysts.
Rapid Application Development

Rapid application development (RAD) is a methodology and

tools that make it possible to develop systems faster, especially
systems where the user interface is an important component.

Typical RAD packages include the following:

• GUI development environment

• Reusable components
• Code generator
• Programming language
Component-based Development

• Components are self-contained packages of functionality

that have clearly defined, open interfaces with high-level
application services such as, interface icons (small), online
ordering (a business component)

• Components can be distributed dynamically for reuse across

multiple applications and heterogeneous computing
platforms.
Managerial Considerations

 The traditional SDLC approach often works well for large

projects with well-defined requirements, where there is not a
lot of time pressure.

 Prototyping requires effective management to make sure that

the iterations of prototyping do not continue indefinitely.

 RAD may be less appropriate than conventional programming

languages for larger projects, or those with a lot of real-time
processing.
 JAD is easy for senior management to understand, yet it is
difficult and expensive to get all people in the same place at the
same time.
Managerial Considerations (cont.)

• A component-based application architecture provides

several business benefits, but the execution of component-
based development requires special training and skill.

• End-user development is also a possibility for larger

projects whose priorities are not high enough to lead to a
timely response from the central IS unit.
• Outsourcing should always be considered by large and
complex systems with a significant risk of failure, yet the
disadvantages should be reviewed carefully.
WHY SOFTWARE PROJECTS FAIL

Discovering Computers 2010: Living in a Digital World 52

Chapter 12
Most Projects Start with Optimism

... and sometimes even

wild enthusiasm
But Too Many Projects End in Disaster
Cause: Inadequate Engineering
and Management Practices

... and too often we

do not look to the future
to guide our actions today.
Background
• Software failures are common in both large commercial projects
and government projects.

• Organizations do not routinely collect data on their software

costs, schedules, or quality.

• The material cited herein is based on public domain

publications and past DoD studies.
A Survey of 1,500 Software Projects

Software projects
completed on time
and on budget
16%
Late and
over budget
53%
Projects
canceled
31%
before
Average completion
cost growth
exceeds 89%

The average final product contains 61% of the originally

specified features.
Ref: CHAOS Study, Standish Group, Summer 1996, 1999.
One Common Characteristic:
Too Much Effort Spent on Rework
•
State of Practice
Development Integration and System Test

60 - 80 % of effort and cost*

too much effort, time, and

cost spent on removing defects
found during testing
(software quality is important!)
* Ref: Standish Group, www.standishgroup.com, 1996, 1999.a
Top 10 Reasons for Software Failures

1. Insufficient senior staff and/or inexperienced software

engineering cadre

2. Acquirers and developers lack experience working as a

team

3. Inadequate contract incentives to encourage use of

modern software engineering practices

4. Inadequate process emphasis

5. Inadequate project management methodology

 Top 10 Reasons for Software Failures

6. Software objectives are not fully understood or specified;

they change frequently (and grow) during the project

7. Size matters—large projects get into trouble more frequently

than smaller ones do

8. Inadequate planning and estimating

9. Software issues are considered too late in the system-

development process

10. Technology used is new to the organization

Defense Science Board (DSB)
Recommendations*

1. Collect, disseminate and employ best practices

2. Stress software past performance, consider

non-traditional sources

3. Restructure contract incentives

4. Develop serious training and education

5. Initiate independent expert reviews

6. Strengthen the technology base

*
Ref: Report of DSB Task Force on Defense Software, November 2000.