RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
(Sampling)

Week 9

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 1
 Sampling
A sample is a subset of a
larger population of objects
individuals, households,
businesses, organizations
Population
Population and so forth.

Sampling enables researchers

to make estimates of some
unknown characteristics of
the population in question
Sample
Sample
A finite group is called population
whereas a non-finite (infinite)
group is called universe

A census is a investigation of all

the individual elements of a
population
29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 2
 Selecting samples
Population, sample and individual cases

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases

 Population, sample and individual cases
• The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some
of the elements in a population, we may draw
conclusions about the entire population.
• A population element is the individual participant or object
on which the measurement is taken. It is the unit of study. It
may be a person but it could also be any object of interest.
• A population is the total collection of elements about
which we wish to make some inferences.
• A census is a count of all the elements in a population.
• A sample frame is the listing of all population elements
from which the sample will be drawn.

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 4
 Reasons for Sampling
 Budget and time Constraints (in case of large populations)

 High degree of accuracy and reliability (if sample is

representative of population)

 Sampling may sometimes produce more accurate results than

taking a census as in the latter, there are more risks for making
interviewer and other errors due to the high volume of persons
contacted and the number of census takers, some of whom may
not be well-trained

 Industrial production and import / export

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 5
 Why Sample?

Availability
Availability Lower
Lower cost
cost
of
of elements
elements
Sampling
Sampling
provides
provides
Greater
Greater Greater
speed
speed accuracy

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 The need to sample

Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when

• A survey of the entire population is impracticable

• Budget constraints restrict data collection

• Time constraints restrict data collection

• Results from data collection are needed quickly

 What Is a Valid Sample?

Accurate Precise

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 What Is a Valid Sample?

• The ultimate test of a sample design is how well it represents

the characteristics of the population it purports to represent. In
measurement terms, the sample must be valid.
• Validity of a sample depends on two considerations: accuracy
and precision.
• Accuracy is the degree to which bias is absent from the
sample. When the sample is drawn properly.
• Precision of estimate is the second criterion of a good sample
design.
• Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate, a type
of standard deviation measurement. The smaller the standard
error of the estimate, the higher is the precision of the sample.
 The Sampling Process
Plan
Plan procedure
procedure for
for
selecting
selecting sampling
sampling units
units

44

Determine
Determine ifif aa probability
probability
33 or
or non-probability
non-probability sampling
sampling Determine
Determine sample
sample size
size 55
method
method will
will bebe chosen
chosen

22 Select
Select aa Select
Select actual
actual sampling
sampling units
units 66
Sampling
Sampling Frame
Frame

Define
Define the
the Target
Target
11 Conduct
Conduct fieldwork
fieldwork 77
population
population
29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 10
 Defining the Target Population
 The target population is that complete group whose relevant
characteristics are to be determined through the sampling

 A target population may be, for example, all faculty

members in the Department of Management Sciences in
the COMSATS network, all housewives in Islamabad, all
pre-college students in Rawalpindi, and all medical doctors
in Pakistan

 The target group should be clearly delineated if possible, for

example, do all pre-college students include only primary
and secondary students or also students in other
specialized educational institutions?

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 11
 The Sampling Frame
 The sampling frame is a list of all those population elements that will be
used in the sample

 Examples of sampling frames are a student telephone directory (for the

student population), the list of companies on the stock exchange, the
directory of medical doctors and specialists, the yellow pages (for
businesses)

 Often, the list does not include the entire population. The discrepancy is
often a source of error associated with the selection of the sample
(sampling frame error)

 Information relating to sampling frames can be obtained from

commercial organizations

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 12
 Sampling Units
 The sampling unit is a single element – or group
of elements – subject to selection in a sample.
Examples:

 Every student at COMSATS whose first name begins

with the letter “F”
 All child passengers under 18 years of age who are
traveling in a train from destination X to destination Y
 All jeweler shops in sectors F-6, F-7 and F-8 in
Islamabad

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 13
 Sampling Errors (1)
 Random Sampling Error – This is defined as the “difference
between the sample result and the result of a census
conducted using identical procedures” and is the result of
chance variation in the selection of sampling units

 If samples are selected properly (for e.g. through the

technique of randomization), the sample is usually deemed
to be a good approximation of the population and thus
capable of delivering an accurate result

 Usually, the random sampling error arising from statistical

fluctuation is small, but sometimes the margin of error can
be significant

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 14
 Sampling Errors (2)
 Systematic (Non-Sampling) Errors – These errors result
from factors such as an improper research design that
causes response error or from errors committed in the
execution of the research, errors in recording responses
and non-responses from individuals who were not
contacted or who refused to participate

 Both Random sampling errors and systematic (non-

sampling) errors reduce the representativeness of a
sample and consequently the value of the information
which is derived by business researchers from it

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 15
 Graphical Depiction of
Sampling Errors
Respondents
Planned (actual
Sampling Frame Sample sample)

Non-Response Error
Sampling Frame Error

Random Sampling Error

Total Population
29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 16
 Overview of sampling techniques
Sampling techniques

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 7.2 Sampling techniques
 Probability and
Non-Probability Sampling
 Probability Sampling – Every element in the
population under study has a non-zero
probability of selection to a sample, and every
member of the population has an equal
probability of being selected

 Non-Probability Sampling – An arbitrary means

of selecting sampling units based on subjective
considerations, such as personal judgment or
convenience. It is less preferred to probability
sampling
29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 18
 Sample size

Choice of sample size is influenced by

• Confidence needed in the data
• Margin of error that can be tolerated
• Margin of error (also called The confidence interval ) is the plus-or-
minus figure usually reported in newspaper or television opinion poll
results. For example, if you use a margin of error of 4 and 47% percent
of your sample picks an answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked
the question of the entire relevant population between 43% (47-4) and
51% (47+4) would have picked that answer.
• Types of analyses to be undertaken
• Size of the sample population and distribution
 The importance of response rate

Key considerations

• Non- respondents and analysis of refusals

• Obtaining a representative sample

• Calculating the active response rate

• Estimating response rate and sample size

 Non-Probability Sampling (1)
 Convenience Sampling – This is a sampling technique
which selects those sampling units most conveniently
available at a certain point in, or over a period, of time

 Major advantages of convenience sampling is that is quick,

convenient and economical; a major disadvantage is that the
sample may not be representative

 Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of

exploratory research and supplemented subsequently with
probability sampling

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 22
 Non-Probability Sampling (2)
 Judgment (purposive) Sampling – This is a sampling technique in
which the business researcher selects the sample based on
judgment about some appropriate characteristic of the sample
members

 Example 1: The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is based on a

judgment sample of market-based items, housing costs, and
other selected goods and services which are representative for
most of the overall population in terms of their consumption

 Example 2: Selection of certain voting districts which serve as

indicators for the national voting trend

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 23
 Purposive sampling
• Extreme case/deviant sampling: unusual
or special case enable to learn the most
about the RQ.
• Heterogeneous or maximum variation
sampling: representing different subgroups
• Homogeneous sampling: One subgroup.
• Critical case sampling:
– If it happen there, it will happen everywhere.
 Non-Probability Sampling (3a)
 Quota Sampling – This is a sampling technique in which
the business researcher ensures that certain
characteristics of a population are represented in the
sample to an extent which is he or she desires

 Example: A business researcher wants to determine through

interview, the demand for Product X in a district which is very
diverse in terms of its ethnic composition. If the sample size is to
consist of 100 units, the number of individuals from each ethnic
group interviewed should correspond to the group’s percentage
composition of the total population of that district

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 25
 Quota Sampling
• Divide the population into specific groups.
• Calculate quota for each group based on
relevant and available data
• Collect data from each quota
 Non-Probability Sampling (3b)
 Quota Sampling has advantages and disadvantages:

 Advantages include the speed of data collection, less cost, the

element of convenience, and representativeness (if the
subgroups in the sample are selected properly)

 Disadvantages include the element of subjectivity (convenience

sampling rather than probability-based which leads to improper
selection of sampling units)

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 27
 Non-Probability Sampling (4)
 Snowball Sampling – This is a sampling technique in which individuals or
organizations are selected first by probability methods, and then
additional respondents are identified based on information provided by
the first group of respondents

 Example: Through a sample of 500 individuals, 20 scuba-diving

enthusiasts are identified which, in turn, identify a number of other
scuba-divers

 The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller sample sizes and

costs are necessary; a major disadvantage is that the second group
of respondents suggested by the first group may be very similar and
not representative of the population with that characteristic

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 28
 Snowball sampling
• Make contact with one or two cases in the
population.
• Ask these cases to identify further cases.
• Ask these new case to identify further new
cases.
• Stop when either no new cases are given
or the sample is large enough.
 Probability Sampling (1)
 Simple Random Sampling – This is a technique
which ensures that each element in the
population has an equal chance of being
selected for the sample

 Example: Choosing raffle tickets from a drum,

computer-generated selections, random-digit
telephone dialing

 The major advantage of simple random sampling is

its simplicity

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 30
 Simple random sampling
• Number each of the cases in your
sampling frame with a unique number.
• Select cases using random numbers until,
actual sample size is reached.
• Computer aided telephone interviewing
(CATI) software
 Simple Random
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to implement • Requires list of
with random dialing population elements
• Time consuming
• Uses larger sample
sizes
• Produces larger
errors
• High cost

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 Probability Sampling (2)
 Systematic Sampling – This is a technique which in
which an initial starting point is selected by a random
process, after which every nth number on the list is
selected to constitute part of the sample

 Example: From a list of 1500 name entries, a name on the list is

randomly selected and then (say) every 25th name thereafter.
The sampling interval in this case would equal 25.

 For systematic sampling to work best, the list should be random

in nature and not have some underlying systematic pattern

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 33
 Systematic Random Sampling

• Number each of the cases in your sampling frame

with a unique number.
• Select the first case using a random number
• Calculate the sampling fraction
• Select subsequent cases systematically using the
sampling fraction to determine the frequency of
selection.
• Sampling fraction = actual sample size/ total
population
 Probability Sampling (3)
 Stratified Sampling – This is a technique which in which simple random
subsamples are drawn from within different strata that share some
common characteristic

 Example: The student body of CIIT is divided into two groups

(management science, engineering) and from each group, students
are selected for a sample using simple random sampling in each of
the two groups, whereby the size of the sample for each group is
determined by that group’s overall strength

 Stratified Sampling has the advantage of giving more representative

samples and less random sampling error; the disadvantage lies
therein, that it is more complex and information on the strata may be
difficult to obtain

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 35
 Stratified random sampling
• Choose the stratification variable or
variables
• Divide the sampling frame into the discrete
strata.
• Number each of the cases within each
stratum with a unique number
• Select your sample using either simple
random or systematic random sampling
 Probability Sampling (4)
• Cluster Sampling
• Choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame.
• Number each of the clusters with a unique number.
• Select sample of clusters using random sampling

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 37
 Stratified and Cluster Sampling
Stratified Cluster
• Population divided • Population divided
into few subgroups into many subgroups
• Homogeneity within • Heterogeneity within
subgroups subgroups
• Heterogeneity • Homogeneity
between subgroups between subgroups
• Choice of elements • Random choice of
from within each subgroups
subgroup

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 Issues in Sample Design and Selection (1)

 Accuracy – Samples should be representative of the

target population (less accuracy is required for
exploratory research than for conclusive research
projects)

 Resources – Time, money and individual or institutional

capacity are very important considerations due to the
limitation on them. Often, these resources must be
“traded” against accuracy

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 39
 Issues in Sample Design and Selection (2)
 Availability of Information – Often information on potential
sample participants in the form of lists, directories etc. is
unavailable (especially in developing countries) which makes
some sampling techniques (e.g. systematic sampling)
impossible to undertake

 Geographical Considerations – The number and dispersion of

population elements may determine the sampling technique
used (e.g. cluster sampling)

 Statistical Analysis – This should be performed only on

samples which have been created through probability
sampling (i.e. not probability sampling)

29 August 2005 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 40