FINDING

ANSWERS
THROUGH DATA
COLLECTION

CHAPTER 5
COLLECTING DATA USING APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENTS

• DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE

-It is very important in data analysis. There are two different
methods to gather information; primary and secondary.
Primary data collection- uses surveys, interviews
questionnaires, tests observations, check lists and rating
scales.
Secondary data collection- is conducted by obtaining
information found in journals, books, annual reports,
websites and other publications available in public use.
 PRESENTING AND INTERPRETING DATA AND
GRAPHICAL FORMS
Lesson 2
• TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
-Textual presentation use words, statements or paragraphs
with numerals, numbers or measurements to described data.
They can be used independently to described data when
there are very few quantities or it can also be used to
compare data using paragraphs for the discussion.
EXAMPLE:
There are 42,036 barangays in the Philippines. The largest barangay in terms of
population size is barangay 176 in Caloocan City with 247 thousand persons. It
followed by Commonwealth in Quezon City (198,285)and Batasan Hills in Quezon
City (161,409). Twelve other barangays posted a population size of more that a
hundred thousand persons.
TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA
-Table present clear and organized data. A table must be clear and
simple but complete.
A good table should include the following parts:
•TABLE NUMBER AND TITLE
-These are placed above the table. The title is usually written right after the
table number.
•CAPTION SUBHEAD
-This refers to columns and rows
•BODY
-It contains all data under each subhead
•SOURCE
-It indicates if the data is secondary and it should be acknowledge
EXAMPLE:
TABLE 1
Ages of individuals in various employment sectors

EMPLOYMENT 18-25 26-25 36-45

SECTOR AGE GROUP AGE GROUP AGE GROUP
AGRICULTURE 3 8 12
EDUCATION 10 15 15
HEALTH 15 28 35
LAW 3 5 6
MANUFACTURING 15 23 32
RETAIL 30 12 8
OTHERS 25 16 10
TABULAR PRESENTATION WITH TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
An information sheet is distributed to 300 junior and senior high school
students of a certain school to gather data on background of the students in terms of
sex, grade level and socioeconomic status as measured by monthly family income. A
profile analysis of the students background is provided for each tabular presentation
of the family variables to illustrate textual analysis.
TABLE 2
Profile of Students According to Gender

GENDER FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

MALE 120 40%
FEMALE 180 60%
TOTAL 300 100%

Analysis: Among the 300 respondents, 120 (40%) are males and 180 (60%) are
females.
 TABLE 3
PROFILE OF STUDENTS ACCORDING TO GRADE LEVEL
GRADE LEVEL FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
GRADE 7 60 20%
GRADE 8 54 18%
GRADE 9 51 17%
GRADE 10 45 15%
GRADE 11 90 30%
TOTAL 300 100%

Analysis: the survey’s 300 respondents, 60 (20%) are in Grade 7, 54(18%) are
in Grade , 51 (17%) are in Grade 9 and 45 (15%)are in grade 10. this
constitutes enrolment in Junior High School. Enrollees entering Senior High
School in Grade 11 constitutes 90(30%) of the total school enrollment.
 TABLE 4
PROFILE OF STUDENTS’ ECONOMIC STATUS BASED ON MONTHLY FAMILY
INCOME

SOCIO-ECONMIC NUMBER PERCENTAGE NUMBER OF PERCENTAG TOTAL PERCENTAGE

STATUS OF MALES (%) FEMALES (F) E(%) RESPONDENTS
(M)

BELOW 30 25% 45 25% 75 25%

AVERAGE
AVERAGE/ 66 55% 108 60% 174 58%
MIDDLE
ABOVE 24 20% 27 15% 51 17%
AVERAGE
TOTAL 120 100% 180 100% 300 100%
 Analysis: The students’ socio-economic statuses based on the monthly
family income are categorized into three groups: above average, average or middle
and below average. Those students whose combined monthly family income falls on
the below average category consists of 75 or 25% of the respondents. There are 174
or 58% whose combined monthly family income falls on the average or middle
bracket. The remaining 17% (51) falls on the above average combine monthly family
income.
As shown by the results, the highest share of percentage of the students
belong to the average or middle income bracket. Most of the respondents came from
the average or middle socio-economic status in terms of monthly family income.
Likewise, among the three levels of socio-economic status, average or
middle income bracket has the highest number of frequency, as well as the highest
percentage of male and female respondents, i.e., 50% and 60%, respectively. Also,
both males and females belonging to the below-average income level consist of 25%
each for the both sexes while the remaining 20%of males and 15% of the females
belong to the above average level.
 GRAPHICAL METHODS IN PRESENTING DATA

A graph or a chart portrays visual presentation of data

using symbols such as lines, dots, bars and slice. It depicts the
trend of a certain set of measurements or shows comparison
between two or more sets of data or quantities.
A good graph or chart shows that the x and the y axis ha
a heading and units are included. The figure number and title are
usually placed below the figure. The known value is plotted on
the x-axis and the measured value is plotted on the y-axis. This
description of good chart excludes pie chart.
Some examples of charts/graphs are the following:
 LINE GRAPH
– A line graph is a graphical presentation of data
that shows a continuous change or trend. It may
show an ascending or descending trend.
 DOUBLE LINE GRAPH
-A double line graph has two lines connecting points to show continuous
change of data over time. a double line graph includes a key, which represents the
information, event and situation being observed.
 BAR GRAPH OR BAR CHART
– A bar graph uses bars to compare categories of data. It
may be drawn vertically or horizontally.
A vertical graph is best use when comparing means or
percentages between distinct categories. A horizontal
graph may contain more than 5 categories.
-A bar graph is plotted on either x-axis or y-axis. The
categories may be plotted on one axis while the other axis
contains the numerical values that represents the data
being measured.
VERTICAL BAR GRAPH
PIE CHARTS OR CIRCLE GRAPHS
– A pie chart usually used to show how parts of a whole being compare to each
other and to the whole. The entire circle show the total, and the parts are
proportional to the amount of the total they represent.
– The amount going to each part is expressed as a percentage ; the, a circle is
divided into pieces proportional to the percentage of each category. This is
done by multiplying the percentage share by 360 degrees.
USING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES IN
ANALYZING DATA
Lesson 3
– The relationship between variables can be
measured statistically by various correlation
methods.
1.THE SCATTER DIAGRAM
-Plotting graphically the values of the correlated
variables means placing one variable on the x-axis.
The scatter diagram gives you a picture of the
relationship between variables
The following are the examples of scatter diagram
TYPES OF CORRELATION
1. SIMPLE CORRELATION
-This a relationship between two variables the independent and the dependent.
A. LINEAR CORRELATION
-this means that a change in one variable is at a constant rate with respect to the
change in the second variable, the correlation between the variables may be
direct or inversely.
1. DIRECT- For every increase in one variable, there is a
corresponding increase in the second variable.
2. INVERSE- For every increase in one variable, there is a
corresponding decrease in the second variable

B. CURVILINEAR CORRELATION
-This means that a change in one variable is not a fixed rate. It may be increasing
or decreasing with respect to the change in the other variable.
2. MULTIPLE CORRELATION
-It involves more than two variables. The relationship between a dependent
variable and two or more independent variables is usually measured.
A. Non-Linear Correlation
The relationship in non-linear is similar to
curvilinear correlation. However, in this correlation
more than two variables are involved.
B. Joint Correlation
This correlation between the dependent variable and
two or more variables is change with the addition of
another independent variable.
3. PARTIAL CORRELATION
-This is a relative measure of relationship between the dependent and a
particular independent variable, without considering the effect of the other
independent variables under study.
 THE COEFFICIENT OF
CORRELATION
-To obtain the quantitative value of the
extent of the relationship between two sets of
items, it is necessary to calculate the correlation
coefficient. The values of the coefficient of
correlation ranges between +1 to -1. Zero
represents no relationship. correlation
coefficient between 1 and -1 represents various
degrees of relationship between two variables.
1. THE PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT (PEARSON R)

This measure was first derived by a British statistician Karl

Pearson. It is a linear relationship between two variables
A. COMPUTATION OF PEARSON R
Pearson r can be computed based on
raw scores
Formula used is:
 The sign of the coefficient of correlation indicates the direction of
the relationship between the two variables. A positive correlation means that
individuals obtaining high scores in the first variable tend to obtain low scores
in a second variable.
A negative correlation coefficient means every increase in one
variable, there is a decrease on a second variable, or decrease in one variable
increase the other one.
The absolute value of correlation coefficient indicates the extent of
the relationship. An r of 0.7 and above indicates a very high correlation; an r
round 0.5 may be interpreted as substantial; and a r of 0.3 indicates a low
relationship between two variables being measured.
A 0.88 degree of correlation for the above mentioned data denoted
very high correlation.
 The value of the Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r) can be interpreted
as follows as suggested by Garett (1969).
•r from .00 to ± .20 denotes indifferent, inverse or
negligible relationship
• r from ± .21 to ± .40 denotes low but slight
relationship
•r from ± .41 to ± .70 denotes substantial or marked
relationship
•r from ± .71 to ± 1.00 denotes high to very high
relationship
2. THE SPEARMAN RANK ORDER CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT (SPEARMAN RHO)
-The statistics being used based on ranks or position is the
Spearman rank correlation coefficient. It is measure of relationship
between two variables by ranking the items or individuals under study
according to their position. The following formula may be applied:

The formula requires that you get the difference in the ranks of
the individuals from two variable, then you square and add the squared
differences and substitute the resulting values in the above formula.
SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS
-Linear regression is the simplest and
commonly used statistical measure for prediction
studies. It is concerned with finding an equation
that uses the known values of one or more
variables, called independent or predictor
variables, to estimate the unknown value of a
quantitative variable called the dependent or
criterion. It is a prediction when a variable (Y) is
dependent on a second variable (X) based on the
regression equation of given set of data.
There are three (3) major uses of regression analysis:
•Casual analysis- establishes the possible causation of
changes in one variable by changes in other variables.
•Forecasting An Effect- predicts or estimate the value of
a variable given the values of the other variables.
•Linear Trend Forecasting- imposes a line of the best fit
to time series historical model (Mc Guigan, 2011)
 The next step of regression analysis is to find a suitable function
that expresses the predicted value of Y given a value of X.
The general form of linear function is Y=a+bX
Where:
a= is called the Y-intercept of the line (the value of Y when X is equal to
zero)
b= is the slope of the line called the regression (the rate change of Y per
unit change in X)
The line that describes the statistical relationship between X and Y is called
the regression line. It is a straight line that attempts to predict the
relationship between points also known as line of best fit.
The regression line gives an estimate of the mean value of Y; denoted by Y,
given the value of X. Hence the equation of the regression line is:

Y Should be distinguished from the observe data values which we denote

simply as Y. For a specific X, the resulting Y is predicted value of the
dependent variable.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REGRESSION
LINE
1. When b>0, Y increases as X increases. In tis case,
we say that Y is directly or positively related to X.
Figure 6 is an example.
2. When b< 0, Y decreases as X increases, and
we say that Y is inversely or negatively related.
Figure 7 is an example.
3. When b=,0, Y is a constant and is equal to the
y-intercept a. This implies that there is no
change in Y whatever X value is. Figure 8 below
is an example.
CHI-SQUARE (X²)
-The chi-square is the most commonly used method of
comparing proportions. It is particularly useful in test evaluating a
relationship between nominal or ordinal data.
-Chi-Square analysis compares the observe frequencies with
expected frequencies. It is measure of actual divergence of the
observed and expected frequencies. It is given in the formula:
 CHI-SQUARE AS A TEST OF INDEPENDENCE:
TWO VARAIBLE PROBLEM
Chi-square can also be used to test the significance of
the relationship between two variables when data are
expressed in terms of frequencies of joint occurrence. In the
case of two variable problems, the expected frequencies are
those predicted on the independence of two variables. The
formula is equal to:
ONE-SAMPLE z-TEST
The one-sample z-test is used when we want to know whether
the difference between a sample mean and the population mean is
larger enough to be statistically significant, that is, if it is unlikely to
have occurred by chance. This test can be used only if the background
assumptions are satisfied such as the population mean and standard
deviation must be known and the test statistic should be followed a
normal distribution.
Computed Test Statistics z:
ONE-SAMPLE t-TEST
 INDEPENDENT SAMPLE z-TEST:
EQUAL VARIANCE NOT ASSUMED

-Similar to the test on single mean, the Z-test is used for

testing two means when the variance is known and T-test if the
variance is unknown.
Computed Test Z:
INDEPENDENT SAMPLE t–Test:
EQUAL VARIANCE ASSUMED
ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
-One way analysis of variance is used when you want to
compare the means of more than two groups. This test can be used
only if the background assumptions are satisfied such that it has
independent random samples, population are normal and
population variance are equal.
ACTIVITIES