TOOLS

&
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
INTRODUCTION
 Data are the observable and measurable facts that give
information about the phenomenon under study.
 In research studies, two type of data are collected those
are primary and secondary data.
 Nursing research studies are primarily relying on
primary data.
 Variety of data collation methods are used in nursing
research studies such as interview, questioning,
observation, biophysical measurements, psycho-social
measurement scales, record analysis etc.
CONCEPT OF DATA COLLATION
 Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide
information about phenomenon under study. For example,
when physical growth of infant is the phenomenon under
study, the data to measure about physical growth would be
the body weight, height, chest and head circumferences
 The aim of gathering and summarizing data is to transform
this into meaningful information in order to identify variables,
measure variables, describe behaviour, and compute
empirical evidences that are objective, reliable and valid.
 The Five ‘Ws’ of data collection are;
– What data is to be collected?
– From whom data is to be collected?
– Who will collect data?
– From where the data will be collected?
– When is the data to be collected?
 DATA SOURCES
Sources of data are generally categorized in two broad
category; those are:
 Primary source: Primary data are directed collected from the
research units that may be individual, object, program or the
institution. Primary sources provide the first hand information those
are directly collected by the researcher from the respondents or the
situation.  
 Secondary source: Secondary data are collected from either internal
or external secondary sources. External sources also known as
published or unpublished records
 Published records may include the journals, magazines,
news papers, government reports, statistical abstracts,
census reports, mass communication, and commission
reports.
 Unpublished records may include official records, patient
records, thesis, dissertations and reports. However,
internal secondary sources also known as private
documents may include the biographies, personal diaries,
letters and memories etc.
Primary sources Secondary sources
Internal Sources External Sources
-Person, objects, (Private documents) (Public documents)
program or Published Records Unpublished
institutions etc - Biographies Records
- Diaries
(Primary data are - Letters - Journals &
collected through - Memories Magazines - Unpublished
interview, - News papers thesis
questioning, - Government reports - Unpublished
observation, - Statistical abstracts dissertations
biochemical - Census reports and reports
measurement, and - Mass - Official or
psycho-social communication patient
measurement scales) - Commission reports records.
 METHODS AND TOOLS OF DATA
COLLECTION

 The strategy or system used to gather information from

participants, programs and other elements of the evaluation.
 Methods of data collection: The various steps, strategies used
for gathering and analyzing data in a research investigation are
known as the methods of data collection.
 Technique of data collection: The means of gathering the data
with the use of specific tools that are used in a given methods are
known as technique of data collection.
 Instrument/ tools for data collection: Instrument is a devise
used to measure the concept of interest in a research project that
a researcher uses to collect the data
 Type of method/ Tools for data collection
techniques
1. Interview - Interview schedule
- Opinionnaire
2. Questioning - Questionnaire
- Opinionnaire
-Attitude scales/ Composite scales (Likert scale, and
Semantic differential scale)
-Visual analog scale
3. Observation - Rating scales
- Check lists
- Anecdotes
- Video tapes/ films
- Closed circuit T.V.
4. Bio-physiological methods - Invivo bio-physiological measurements
- Invitro bio-physiological measurements
5. Others methods - Projective technique
- Q- sorts
- Vignettes
 SELECTION OF METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
Selection of appropriate method of data collection is influenced by several
factors as discussed below
 The nature of phenomenon under study
 Type of research subjects
 The type of research study
 The purpose of the research study:
 Size of the study sample:
 Distribution of the target population
 Time frame of the study
 Literacy level of the subjects
 Availability of recourses and manpower
 Research’s level of knowledge & competence
CRITERIA OF EVALUATION/ ASSESSMENT OF DATA
COLLECTION METHODS

The appropriateness of the data collection method may be

evaluated or assessed by using following criteria:
 Accuracy and completeness of data collection
 Compatibility with educational level, socio-cultural values and
beliefs of the subjects.
 Cost effectiveness and speed on data collection procedure.
 In accordance with nature of phenomenon under study, type of
the study, purpose of the study, time frame of the study and
resources available for the study.
 Further, following criteria may be considered while evaluating or
assessing the method for data collection:
– Does data collection method is complete in all the aspects to study the
study variables?
– Does data collection methods are thoroughly described?
– Does data collection methods are in accordance to research questions,
hypotheses to be test appropriately?
– Does validity and reliability of data collection methods is established?
– Does number of methods used for data collection are sufficient for
compete coverage of research data or additional methods are required for
data collection?
– Was anonymity and confidentiality is assured?
– Was instrument described in detail?
– Was criterion measures or scoring methods were clearly established.
INTERVIEW

 “A method of data collection in which one person

(interviewer) asks the questions from another
person (respondent); which is conducted either face
to face or telephonically”.
 “An interview is a conversation between two or
more people (interviewer and interviewee) where
questions are asked by interviewer to obtain
information from the interviewee”.
 Characteristics of interview
 The participants, the interviewer, the respondent are strangers.
 The relationship between the participants is a transitory one.
 Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to question put verbally.
 The investigator records information furnished by the respondent
 Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a conversation with a
specific purpose.
 The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be
on a face basis.
 Although interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it is not be limited
to a single respondent.
 Interview is a interactional process-the interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent depends on how they perceive each other.
 Interview is not a standardized process; it can be modified according to situation.
Benefits of interview
 Provide in-depth and detailed information
 Permits greater depth of response
 Data from illiterate subjects
 Higher response
 Clarify misunderstandings
 Ask questions at several levels
 Helps to gather other supplement information.
 Use of special devices
 Accuracy can be checked.
 Flexible and adaptable
 Persons who are unable to write their response, interview is very
advantageous.
 
Types of interview
Basically interview can be classified as following
1. Structured interview: (directive interview):

 Structured interview is a means of data collection in which

interviewer has interview schedule which lists the questions which
are to be answered in the same order. These interviews are also
knows as standardized interviews.
 Structured interview consists following characteristics;
– Interview schedule is formalized and has limited set of questions.
– Aim is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the
same questions in the same order.
– It increases the reliability and credibility of research data.
– It minimizes context effects, where answer given to survey question
depend on nature of preceding questions.
 Merits
 Data from one interview to the next one are easily comparable.
 Recording and coding data does not pose any problem.
 Attention is not diverted to irrelevant and time-consuming
conversation.
 Demerits
 It tends to loose the spontaneity of natural conversation.
 The way in which the interview is structured may be such that the
respondent’s views are minimized and investigator’s own biases
regarding the problems under study are introduced.
 The scope of exploration of information of data is limited.
2. Unstructured interview (Non-directive interview)

 These interviews are also knows as non-standardized interviews.

Unstructured interview is a method where questions can be changed
to meet the respondent intelligence, understanding and beliefs.
 Unstructured interview consists following characteristics;
– Interview schedule is not formalized and has open ended questions,
where there is opportunity to ask questions which are not before
planned.
– Aim is to explore the information from the respondents.
– It increases the reliability and credibility of research data.
– It facilitates the natural unobstructed proceedings of the interview
procedure.
 Merits
 It is less prone to interviewer’s bias.
 It provides greater opportunity to explore the problem in an
unrestricted manner.
 It is useful for gathering information on sensitive topic like divorce,
social discrimination, drug addiction etc.
Demerits
 The data obtained from one interview is not comparable to the
data from the next.
 Time may be wasted in unproductive conversation.
 There is no order or sequence in this interview.
 This requires more skills.
3. Semi-structured interview

 Semi-structured interview is a flexible method that allows new

questions to be brought up during the interview depending upon
the situation needs during the interview says.
 Semi-structured interview posses following characteristics;
– Interviewer prepares an interview guide, which is an
informal group of topics and questions that the
interviewer can ask in different way from different
participants
– Interview guide help researcher to focus on the topics at
hand without constraining them to a particular format.
4. In-Depth interview
 This is an intensive and searching interview conducted aiming at
studying the respondent’s opinion, emotions on the basis of
interview guide.
 This requires more training and interpersonal skills than structured
interviewing.
 This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as extremely
personal feelings and emotions.
 This is designed to encourage free expressions of affectively
charged information.
5. Focused group interview
 Focus group interview is a unstructured group interview technique where 8-12
members are brought together under the guidance of a trained interviewer, to
focus on a specific concept.
 The basic characteristics of the this type of interviews are;
– It consists of 8-12 members which are homogeneous in terms of demographic and socio-
economic characteristics.
– Duration is 1.5 -2 hours.
– All information including facial expressions and body language is recorded.
– It has a moderator to lead the discussion.
– It permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reaction to an experience.
– It is free from inflexibility of formal methods.
– There is plenty of opportunity to present his views by respondents.
– The interviewer is also free to choose the sequence of questions and determine the extend of
probing.
 Merits
 Wide range of information is collected.
 It stimulates new ideas and creative concepts.
 One persons comments triggers a response from another person.
 It increases excitement in a group.
 Participants feel more comfortable to answer in a group with similar
interests.
 It involves many participants at one time.
Demerits
 There are chances of client and researcher bias.
 It is difficult to moderate.
 It is difficult to code, analyze and interpret.
 Focus group interview is not a representative of general population.
 6. Telephone interview
 Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection.
This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself.
Merits
 More flexible and quick way of obtaining information.
 Cost is relatively less and rate of response is high.
 Gained access to respondent is easy through telephone directory.
 No field staff is required and wider coverage of sample is possible.
Demerits
 Difficult to establish rapport between respondent and the interviewer.
 Surveys are limited to respondent who have telephone facilities.
 Respondent’s characteristics, facial expressions and environment cannot be
observed.
 Possibility of bias of interviewer is more.
Interviewing process
 A interviewing process includes following steps;
1. Preparation for interview
2. Pre-interview introduction
3. Developing rapport
4. Carrying the interview forward
5. Recording the interview
6. Closing the interview
 Advantages of interview
 Interviews are useful to obtain information about persons feelings,
perceptions and opinions.
 Interview allows more detailed questions to be asked.
 High response rate is achieved.
 Respondent’s own words are recorded.
 Ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete answers are followed
up.
 Interviews are not influenced by others in group.
 Meaning of questions can be clarified.
Disadvantages of interview
 Interviews are time consuming and are costly affaire.
 Different interviewers may understand and translate interview in
different ways.
 There are high degree chances of interview’s biases.
QUESTIONNAIRE
 “A Questionnaire is a structured instrument consisting of a series
of questions prepared by researcher that a research subject is
asked to complete, to gather data from individuals about
knowledge, attitude, beliefs and feelings”.
 “The instrument is called a questionnaire or sometimes a self-
administered questionnaire (SAQ), when respondents complete
the instrument themselves, usually in a paper and pencil format
but occasionally directly onto a computer”.
 “A questionnaire is a paper and pencil instrument that a research
subject is asked to complete. It is a structured self-report
instrument”.
Types of questions
 Open format questions: Open ended questions are those
questions which provide opportunity to sample to express their
opinions and answer in their own way.
 Open format questions has following characteristics:
– There is no pre-determined set of responses.
– Provide true, insightful and unexpected suggestions.
– Ideal questionnaire contain open ended question at the end that would
ask respondent about the suggestions for changes or improvements.
 Example: state your opinion about the quality of healthcare
services in Punjab?
 Closed format questions: These questions offer respondents a
number of alternative replies, from which the subjects must
choose the one that most likely matches the appropriate answer.
 Close format questions has following characteristics.
– They facilitate easy statistical calculation of data.
– Provide easy preliminary analysis.
– Can be asked to different groups at different intervals.
– Facilitate efficient tracking of opinion.
 Closed format questions could be of the following sub-types:
 Dichotomous questions: These require the respondent to make a choice
between two responses such as yes/no or male/female.
Example: Q. Have you ever been hospitalized? a) Yes b) No
 Multiple choice questions: These questions require respondents to make a
choice between more than two response alternatives.
Example: Q. Which of the following diseases is sexually transmitted?
a) Diabetes Mellitus b) Hypothyroidism
c) Syphilis d) Hypertension
  Cafeteria questions: These are special type of multiple-choice questions
that ask respondents to select a response that most closely corresponds to
their views.
Example: Q. What do you think about Hormone replacement
therapy?
 It is dangerous, should be avoided.
 One should be cautious while using it.
 I am uncertain about my views.
 It is beneficial, should be promoted.
 Rank-order questions: These questions ask respondents to rank their
responses from most favourable to least favourable.
Example: Q. What according to you is most important for your life. Rank
from most favourable to least favourable.
– ------Money
– ------Education
– ------Family
– ------Health
 Contingency questions: A question that is asked further only if the
respondent gives a particular response to previous question.
Example: Q. Are you stressed?
a) NO b) Yes, If yes what are reason?……………………
 Rating questions: These questions ask respondents to judge something
along an ordered dimension. Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue
on a scale that ranges from poor to good. Provide even number of choices
Example: Q. How you rank the education quality in India?

1 2 3 4

Good Fair Poor Very

poor
 Importance questions: In this respondents are asked to rate the
importance of a particular issue, on a rating scale of 1-5. This
helps to know that what are the things that hold importance to
respondent.
Example: Q. Healthcare services in India are:

1 2 3 4 5
Extremely Very Somewhat Not Not at all
important important very important
important
importa
nt
 Liker questions: Likert questions helps to know that how strongly
the respondent agrees with a particular statement. These
questions help to assess how respondent feels towards a certain
issue/ services.
 Example: Q. Is this community a good place to raise children?

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strong
agree ly
disagr
ee
 Bipolar questions: Bipolar questions are questions that have two extreme
answers. Respondent has to mark his/her response between two opposite
ends of the scale.
Example: Q. What is your balance of preference here?
I like going for walks [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] I like watching movie.
 Matrix questions: Matrix questions include multiple questions and identical
response categories are assigned. Questions are placed one under other,
forming a matrix and response categories are placed along the top and a
list of questions down the side.
Example: Q. Please let us know your weekly schedule of the following:
M T W T Fr S S
o u ed hr i at u
n e u n

Gym
(Weight Training)
Aerobics
Eating
(Dinner/Lunch)

Drink
(Alcoholic Beverages)
Guidelines for designing a good questionnaire
a) General points

 The Questionnaire must be developed exactly in accordance with

study objectives.
 Questionnaire must have instruction for the respondents to provide
the responses.
 The drafting of the questionnaire should be concise, precise and brief
 Language of the questionnaire should be according to the
respondents knowledge about the particular language.
 Questions outside the respondents experience should not be asked.
 In asking questions about past events, too much reliance should not
be placed on the respondents’ memory.
a) General points
 Questions which are likely to arise bias in the respondents should be avoided.
 Questions should be very clear and simple. Avoid professional jargons.
 As far as possible open ended questions should be avoided.
 Avoid questions with difficult concepts, which are not easy understandable for
respondents.
 Controversial and ambiguous questions should be avoided.
 The structure of the question should be according to the form in which the
responses are to be recorded.
 Cross-check the respondent by asking same information in two different ways.
 A mailed questionnaire should be accompanied by introduction of study,
purpose and directions to fill questionnaire.
 Abrupt ending of the questions and questionnaire should be avoided.
b) Sequence of questions
 There should be logical sequence of the questions in the
questionnaire.
 Researcher must ensure that answer to question is not influenced
by previous question.
 Questions should flow from more general to more specific.
 Questions should flow from least sensitive to most sensitive.
 Sandwich theory believed that questionnaire should generally
start with demographic profile of subjects followed by specific
questions according to the objectives of the study.
 c) Question construction
 Use statements which are interpreted in same way by all subjects
 Use statements where persons that have different opinion or traits will give
different answers.
 Use only one aspect of the construct in which you are interested.
 Avoid asking double barreled questions which contain two distinct ideas or
concepts.
 Avoid leading, loaded, ambiguous and long questions.
 Avoid negative and double negatives.
 Use positive statements.
 Do not make assumptions about respondent.
 Use clear and comprehensible wording.
 Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
Methods of questionnaire administration
  Advantages of questionnaire
 Questionnaires are cost effective.
 They are easy to analyze.
 They require less time and energy to administer.
 Questionnaire offer the possibility of anonymity.
 Questionnaire reduces bias as interviewer is not present.
 Questionnaire is used for large sample size.
 Questionnaires are less intrusive than phone or face to face interview.
Disadvantages of questionnaire
 Questionnaires are not suitable for all. For example, children, blind and
illiterates.
 Low response rate.
 Questionnaire sent by mail may be filled by someone other than the intended
person.
 Questionnaires provide only superficial information.
 Probing of response is not possible.
 There are chances of misinterpretation.
 People can lie and answer the question vaguely.
 COMPOSITE SCALES/ ATTITUDE SCALES

 A scale is a device designed to assign a numeric score to people to place

them on a continuum with respect to attributes being measured, like a scale
for measuring attitude or weight or so on.
 These rating scales are used to assess the attitude, feelings of self-concept.
 “Composite scales are socio-psychological measurements, which are
directed towards quantifying the qualitative attributes such as
feelings, attitude, self-concept, perceptions, and beliefs etc”.
 “Composite scales are socio-psychological rating scale, which are
generally used for qualitative measures and discriminate people with
different attribute, perception, fears, motives, personality traits and
needs those are often incorporated into interviews or questionnaires”.
 LIKERT SCALE
 “Likert scale is a composite measurement scale used to measure attitude, values and
feelings of the people that involve summation of scores on the set of positive and
negative declarative statements regarding measuring variables to which respondents
are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement”.
 “Likert scale is a composite measure of attitudes that involve summation of scores on
set of items (statements) to which respondents are asked to indicate their degree of
agreement or disagreement”.
 Uses of Likert scale
– Basically it is used to measure the attitude, values and feelings of the people about a
specific concept such as situation, people, place, objects, programs, practices, policies and
so on.
– This scale is used to have quantified measurement of the qualitative attributes
– It may also be used to assess the opinion of the about a particular abstract concept.
– It spread out people with various attitude, emotions, feelings, towards a particular concept.
 Characteristics of Likert scale
 Psychological measurement tool: Likert scale is basically a psychological
measurement tool to assess the attitude, values and feelings of the people about a
specific concept.
 Illustrative in nature: This scale is generally illustrative in nature, where each
statement in scale is stated in explicitly illustrative way so that a person can make a
clear judgment about the degree of agreement or disagreement
 Neutral statements: This must contain neutral statement without incorporation of any
bias of the researcher.
 Bipolar scaling method: This is composed with alternative mixture of positive and
negative declarative statement, so that respondent’s casual response bias can be
eliminated.
 Measurement of the specific number of scaling categories: This scale is originally
developed with five scaling categories and later scales even developed with four, six
and seven scaling categories.
Scoring of the Likert scale
 Scoring of the Likert scale is done on the basis of type
of statement and level of respondents’ agreement with
statement.
 For a positive statement respondents get higher score,
if there is agreement with statement. However, in case
of negative statement, respondent gets higher score, if
there is disagreement with statement or vice versa
Scoring of the statements in Likert scale

Statement Strongly Agree Uncertai Disagree Strongly

agree n disagree

(Positive statement) 5 4 3 2 1
1. Person with multiple
sex partners are at high
risk of AIDS

(Negative statement) 1 2 3 4 5
2. You can get AIDS by
sharing utensils
 Example of five point Likert scale to assess the
attitude with HIV/AIDS

Statement Strongly agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly

disagree
1. Person with multiple sex
partners are at high risk of AIDS
2. You can get AIDS by sharing
utensils
3. You may have HIV by
sharing needles with others
4. Only gay men can get AIDS
5. One way of the getting AIDS
is infected blood transfusion
6. AIDS is a curable disease
 Advantages of Likert scale
 It is relatively easy to construct this scale.
 Likert scale is considered as more reliable and valid tool to measure the
psychosocial variables.
 It is easy to administer, since respondents has to only place a tick in
provided spaces against of each statement.
 It is less time consuming during construction and administration.
Disadvantages of Likert scale
 In Likert scale, respondents may feels forced to answers the question
against each preplanned items and their categories.
 Feeling of the respondents may not be fully assessed due to researcher’s
pre-planned statements and categories.
 Difficulty in justifying the selection of number of categories and numerical
assignment to these categories.
 Casual approach of respondent in these scale may provide misleading
data.
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
 Semantic differential scale is most effective and most widely used
technique now days. In 1967, Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum
introduce this method for the first time in their book, “The
Measurement of Meaning”. Although the original purpose of the
scale was not necessarily to measure the assessment of attitude,
the procedure was well adopted for attitude assessment.
 “Semantic differential scale is a type of rating scale designed to
measure the connotative meaning of objects, events and
concepts. These connotations are used to derive the attitude of
the objects, events and concepts.
Usages of semantic differential scale

 Semantic differential scale is most commonly used

in:
 Patient satisfaction survey
 Customer satisfaction survey
 Employee survey
 Marketing survey
 Operational research
 Personality measurements
 Clinical psychology
 Designing semantic differential scale

 For the preparation of semantic differential scale the adjective

pairs are used.
 The bipolar adjective pairs can be used for a wide variety of
subjects
 The adjective pairs are selected according to the objectives of
the survey.
 The adjective pair can be grouped into three large categories and
each survey question usually includes a few points from each
category. These categories evaluation, potency and activity.
 Adjective pairs used for construction of
semantic differential scale

Evaluation Potency Activity

Good--------------------Bad Hard-------------------Soft Active--------------Passive

Kind-------------------Cruel Strong---------------Weak Fast-------------------Slow

Wise----------------Foolish Heavy-----------------Light Hot--------------------Cold

Beautiful--------------Ugly Deep---------------Shallow Motivated---------Aimless

Happy------------------Sad Potent------------Impotent Moving-----------------Still

Sociable--------Unsociable Large-----------------Small Excitable--------------Calm

Friendly--------Unfriendly Simple-------------Complex Alive------------------Dead

Willing------------Unwilling Difficult---------------Easy Emotional-----Unemotional

Honest----------Dishonest Submissive------Assertive Bright------------------Dim

Example of semantic differential scale to assess the
belief about HIV/AIDS
 Advantages of semantic differential scale
 A convenient method to assess the beliefs, attitude, and values in
quantitaive form.
 Easy to administer.
 Provide reasonable valid and reliable quantitative data.
Disadvantages of semantic differential scale
 It is difficult to select the relevant concepts, which are appropriate
for any given investigations.
 It is time consuming, if anyone is not able to find the appropriate
adjective pairs
VISUAL ANALOGOUS SCALE

 It is widely used psychomotor response scale which is a

measurement instrument for subjective characteristics or attitude
that can not be directly measured. They consist of 10 cm lines, the
end of which marked with semantic ends- for example alert-
drowsy.
 Visual analogous scale (VAS) is used to measure the intensity of
certain sensations and feelings such as pain, discomfort, anxiety,
alertness, quality of sleep, severity of clinical symptoms, functional
ability and attitude towards environmental conditions.
 “Visual analogous scale is a tool used to help a person rate the intensity of
certain sensations and feelings, such as pain.”
 “The VAS is a self-report measure consisting simply of a 10 cm (100 mm)
line with a statement at each end representing one extreme of the dimension
being measured.”
 “The VAS is a bipolar scale used to determine the degree of stimuli a
patient experiencing. One side of the scale expresses the absence of stimuli,
while the other expresses the presence of stimuli.”
 “Visual analogous scale is a 100 mm horizontal or vertical line with right
angle stop at either ends. Between these two extreme ends (e.g. best and
worst, no pain and sever pain, alert and drowsy) respondent provides his
response for particular phenomenon measured, which is later measured by
using a ruler from left end.
 For example, the visual analog scale for pain is a straight line with one end
meaning no pain and the other end meaning the worst pain imaginable. A
patient marks a point on the line that matches the amount of pain he or she
feels.
Uses of visual analogous scale
 To measure the level of pain, anxiety, mood.
 To measure the alertness, quality of sleep, severity of
clinical symptoms, functional ability and attitude
towards environmental conditions.
 To choose the right dose of for the treatment of the
disease.
 To determine the drug’s effect on the patient.
 For rating of soft variables such as skills, confidence,
quality of team work.
 Advantages of VAS
 It is reliable and valid tool to measure the intensity of certain sensations
and feelings.
 The quantitative assessment is highly subjective phenomenon is possible
by this scale.
 This scale is of most value when looking at changes within individual.
 
Disadvantages VAS
 This scale can not be used for comparing across a group of individual at
the same time.
 In measuring pain, the scale does not afford the patient’s opportunity to
record increases in pain, thereby creating a bias in favour of treatment.
 In measuring pain or such sensations, the reliability of this scale is low
owing to the patient’s need to recall their initial pain severity.
OBSERVATIONS
 Observation is way of gathering data by watching behavior,
events, or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting.
 Observation is a method of data collection, which can be used to
gather such information as characteristics and conditions of
individual, verbal communication and non-verbal communication.
 Observation method of data collection is particularly well suited to
nursing research.
 Observations can be overt (everyone knows they are being
observed) or covert (no one knows they are being observed and
the observer is concealed)
Definition
 “Observation is a technique for collecting all the data or acquiring
information through occurrences that can be observed through senses
with or without mechanical devices”.
 “It is a two part process to collect data for study that includes an
observer (some one who is observing) and the observed (there is
something to observe)”.
 Uses of observation Method
– To understand an ongoing process or situation.
– To gathering data on individual behaviors or interactions between
people
– To know about a physical setting.
– Data collection where other methods are not possible
 Types of observation
 Structured observation: In structured observation method, researcher has in
advanced prepared structured or semi-structured tool to observe the phenomenon
under study. Structured observation is generally carried out by using following
tools;
– Checklist
– Rating scale and
– Category system
 Unstructured observation: Unstructured observation is generally used in
qualitative studies, where observation is made with a minimal structured or
researcher imposed categories. Unstructured observation is carried out by using
unstructured tools and following tools are generally used by the researchers;
– Log and field notes
– Anecdotes
– Field diary
– Video recording
 Participant observation: Historically field research, ethnographical
research has been associated most strongly with participant
observation, where observer may live or work in filed and actively
participates in ongoing activities for the extended period. In addition,
observer becomes the accepted member of the group or
community. During participatory observation unstructured tools are
used to collect the data such as log book, field notes, field diary, tap
recording and video recoding etc.
 Non-participant observation: In non-participatory observation,
observer is eavesdropper (secretly listening or observing), where an
attempted is made observe people without interacting with them. In
addition, people are observed without their knowledge that they are
being observed. This method is routinely used by psychologists to
study children or animals. However, this method possesses ethical
problems due to observation of people without their consent.
 In this technique observer is not a participant in the setting but is
merely viewing the situation, there is less likelihood of observation
being directed.
Planning for observation
– Determine the focus
– Design a system for data collection
– Select the sites
– Select the observers
– Train the observers
– Time your observations appropriately
 Advantages of observation
 Collect data where and when an event or activity is occurring.
 Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide
information.
 Allows you to directly see what people do rather than relying on
what people say they did.
Disadvantages of observation
 Susceptible to observer bias.
 Susceptible to the “Hawthorne effect,” that is, people usually
perform better when they know they are being observed, although
indirect observation may decrease this problem.
 Can be expensive and time-consuming compared to other data
collection methods.
 Does not increase your understanding of why people behave as
they do.
 RATING SCALE
 Rating is the term used to express the opinion or judgement
regarding some performance of a person, object, situation and
character.
 The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number
of aspects of a thing or traits of a person.
 “Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of opinion, which
describes varying degree of the dimensions of an attitude
being observed.”
 “Rating scale is devices by which judgements may be
qualified or a opinion concerning a trait can be systematized.”
 Rating scale is the form of tool in which the one person simply
checks off another person’s level of performance. Rating scale
could be 3 point, 5 point or 7 point rating scale.
 Rating scale measures that how much or how well some thing
happened, where generally quantitative and qualitative terms are
used to judge the performance.
 For example:- 1) How good was the nursing care you received?

 example:- 2) How many times nurses promptly responded to your

calls?
Types of the rating scales
1) Graphic rating scale: In this scale the performance is printed
horizontally at various points from lowest to highest. It includes the
numerical points on the scale. It is anchored by two extremes
presented to respondents for evaluation of a concept or object.
For Example: How much are you satisfied with noise control in
your ward?  
Types of the rating scales
 2) Descriptive rating scales: This type of rating scales do not
use number, but divide the assessment into series of verbal
phrases to indicate the level of performance.
 For Example; Q. Judge the level of performance of nursing
personnel in Medical ICU

Level of clinical performance

Nursing personnel in a Very active Active Moderately Passive
ward active

1. Amandeep
2. Jasveen
3. Tara
4. Kirandeep
Types of the rating scales
 Numerical rating scale: It divides the evaluation criteria into a
fixed number of point defines only numbers except at the
extremes. In these scales, each statement is generally assigned
a numerical score ranging from 1 to 10 or even more.
 For Example: Pain assessment numerical scale.
Types of the rating scales
 Comparative rating scale: In this type of rating scale, rater
makes a judgement about an attribute of a person by comparing
with the similar another person(s). Foe example, Mr. Ram’s
decision making abilities are closely resembles that of Mr. Shyam
and Mr. Gopal. In this type of rating scale, rater must have pre-
hand knowledge about the selected attributes of the people with
whom the subjects are suppose to be compared.
Characteristics of rating scale
 Rating scales are value judement about attributes of one person
by another person.
 Theses scales are most commonly used tools to carryout the
structured observations.
 Rating scales are generally developed to make quantitative
judgements about qualitative attributes.
 Rating scales provides more flexibility to judge the level of
performance or presence of a attributes among subjects.
 Guiford (1954) identified that a rating scale must have following
basic characteristics; which must be taken care while constriction of
a rating scale.
– Clarity: rating scale must be constructed using short, concise
statements in simple and unambiguous language.
– Relevance: The statement designed in rating scale should be relevant to
the phenomenon and it should be exactly in accordance with the
variables under study.
– Variety: While developing rating scale monotony of the statements must
be avoided and variety in different statement must be ensured.
– Objectivity: The statement formed in rating scale must be objective in
nature, so that it is convenient for the rater to judge the attributes or
performances of the subjects under study.
– Uniqueness: Each statement constructed in rating scale must be unique
in itself; so that attributes can be judged appropriately.
  
 Advantages of rating scale
 Easy to administer and score the measured attributes.
 Rating scales have wide range of application in nursing research.
 Graphic rating scale is more easy to make and less time- consuming.
 Rating scales can be easily used for a large group.
 Also used for quantitative methods.
 It may also be used for the assessment of interests, attitudes and
personnel characteristics.
 Used to evaluate performance and skills and product outcomes.
 Rating scale are adaptable and flexible research instruments.
 Disadvantages of rating scales
 It is difficult or dangerous to fix up rating about many aspects of an
individual.
 Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.
 There chances of subjective evaluation, thus the scales may become
unscientific and unreliable.
 CHECKLIST
 A check list enables the observer to note only whether or not a trait is present. It
consist of a listing of steps, activities, behaviour which the observer records when
an incident occurs. The observer has to judge whether certain behaviour has taken
place.
 Check list is simply list of performer’s behaviours associated with particular nursing
interventions, within a space for the assessor to check or tick off whether or not
that particulars behaviour occurred.
 “A checklist is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected items of
performance or attributes, which are checked by a researcher for their presence or
absence”.
 “Checklists are constructed by breaking a performance and the quality of a
product, which specifies the presence or absence of an attribute or trait which is
then "checked" by the rater/observer”.
Characteristics of checklists

 Observe one respondent at one time.

 Clearly specify the characteristics of behaviour, to be observed.
 Use only carefully prepared checklist, to avoid more complex
traits.
 The observer should be trained how to observe, what to observe
and how to record the observed behaviour.
 Use checklists only when you are interested in calculating, a
particular characteristic.
 Construction of checklists
While constructing or preparing checklist following points to be kept in mind.
 Express each item in clear, simple language.
 An intensive survey of the literature is made to determine the type check list to be
used in a particular research.
 The list of items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into group of related
items.
 These lists of the items are formulated on the basis of judgement
 Avoid negative statements whenever possible.
 Avoid lifting statements verbatim from the text.
 Ensure that each item has clear response
 Reviews the items independently.
 Checklist must have the quality of completeness and comprehensiveness
 Advantages of checklist
 Checklists should allow inter-individual comparisons.
 It should provide a simple method to record observation.
 Adaptable to subject matter areas.
 Should be useful in evaluating in learning activities.
 Helpful in evaluating procedure work.
 Properly prepared, allows the observer to constrain the direct attention.
 Objectivity to evaluate characteristics.
 Useful for evaluating those processes that can be sub divided into a series of
actions.
 Decreases the chances of error in observation 
Disadvantages of checklist
 Does not indicate quality of performance so usefulness of checklist is limited.
 Only a limited component of overall clinical performance can be evaluated.
 Only the presence or absence of a attribute, behaviour or performance
parameter may be assessed. However, degree of accuracy of performance
can be assed.
 It has limited used in qualitative research studies.
 Checklist for evaluation of student's performance
during surgical dressing
Behaviours Place for () tick mark Remarks
No
Yes
1 Explains procedure
2 Collects necessary equipment
3 Arranges equipment for convenient use

4 Prepares Patient
5 Washes hand
6 Maintains Aseptic Technique
7 Removes Dressing
8 Observes condition of wound
9 Cleans wound
10 Applies dressing
11 Removes equipment
12 Makes Patient comfortable
13 Complete Charting
14 Take care of equipment
 BIO-PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
 Researchers may use the bio-physiological data collection process either
alone or in combination with other methods.
 In order to identify the measurement collection methods best for the
project, the investigator should first list the variables of interest in the
study and included within the hypotheses or research questions.
 Specific technical instruments and equipments are used to measure the
physiological and physical variables and specialized training is needed for
the interpretation of results.
 Data on physiological activity or dysfunction can often be gathered
through direct observation.
– For example, phenomenon such vomiting, cyanosis, postcardiotomy delirium,
edema, and wound status can be observed for presence or absence and intensity.
 “Biophysiological method involves the collection of bio-physiological
data from subjects by using the specialized equipments to determine
physical and biological status of subjects”. For example, blood
pressure measurement by using special equipments such as
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.
 Purposes of bio-physiological method
– To study basic physiological process.
– To study physiological outcome of nursing care
– To evaluate nursing interventions
– To study correlation of physiological functioning in patients
with health problems
Types of bio-physiological methods

 Bio-physiological methods are basically classified in two

categories;
1. Invivo bio-physiological methods
Invivo measuring instrument
system: involve six following
components are as follows;
2)Invitro bio-physiological methods
invitro bio-physiological methods
following measurements can be
carried out;
 Advantages of bio-physiological methods
 Relatively more accurate and error less.
 Bio-physiological measures are more objective in nature.
 Provide the valid measures of the targeted variables.
 Easy access of most of the instruments used for bio-physiological
measurements
Disadvantages of bio-physiological methods
 Some of the instruments used for bio-physiological measurements are very
expensive.
 Require significant amount of training, knowledge and experience.
 The results produced by the bio-physiological measurements instruments
may be affected by the environment.
 The use of bio-physiological measurements instruments may cause the
fear and anxiety among participants.
 The use of some of the bio-physiological method may have harmful effect
on the participants such as repeated exposure to X-ray increase the health
risk for study subjects.
 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE
 “These are methods for measuring psychological attributes (value, attitudes
and personality) by providing respondents with unstructured stimuli to which
they respond”.
  Types of projective technique

Lindzey proposed a five way classification of projective

methods based on types of response:
1. Association technique (word association technique): This technique
requires the subject to respond at the presentation of stimulus (word) with
the first thing that comes to mind, so as to extract information regarding
words that have maximum association (meaning). E.g. Interviewer says
cold and the respondent may say hot and like ones. Mostly used in
marketing research to find the quality that is mostly associated with brand of
a product. 
 2. Completion techniques: Completion projective techniques
supply the subject with stimulus that is incomplete and the subject is
required to complete it as he wished
– Sentence completion test: The subject is needed to complete a
sentence. It reveals his attitude towards the topic. This technique
permits the testing not only of words but of ideas as well and thus helps
in developing hypothesis and in construction of questionnaires. In
addition this technique is also quick and easy to use.

Example, working with others all the time is______________

Subjects might respond: mad, nervous, sick, tired
(negative effect) or contended, good, happy (positive effect).
– Story completion test: The researcher contrives stories, instead of
sentences and asks the informants to complete them. 
 3. Construction technique. The subject is required to produce, to construct,
something at direction, usually a story or a picture. There are several pictorial
techniques used in construction technique. The important ones are:
– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): The TAT consists of a set of pictures of a usual
event and the respondents are asked to describe what they think the pictures
represent.
– Rosenzweig test: This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have series of
cartoons with no words inserted in “balloons”. The respondents are asked to put his
own words in an empty balloon space.
  

–  
– Rorschach test: this test consists of 10 cards having prints of inkblots, the design
happens to be symmetrical but meaningless. Respondents are asked to describe
what they perceive in them.
– Holtzman inkblot test (HIT) : It is a modification of Rorschach test and consists of 45
cards , which are based on colour, movement, shading and other factors. One
response per card is interpreted at 3 levels of appropriateness.
– Tomkins – horn picture arrangement test: This test is designed for group
administrations with five plates, each containing 3 sketches that may be arranged in
different ways to portray sequences which participants considers reasonable.
 4. Expressive technique: A subject is asked to role-
play, act, draw or paint a specific concept or
situation .Expressive techniques focus on the manner
in which the subject constructs something, rather than
on what it represents.

 5. Choice ordering It is a type of projective technique

frequently used in quantitative research. However, the
technique is informally used in qualitative research
when the subjects have to explain why certain things
are "most important" or "least important”, or to "rank" or
"order" or "categorize" certain factors associated with
topic under research.
 6. Miscellaneous type
– Drawing a picture: Each participant is given a blank piece of
paper and a pencil and is asked to draw a picture that
might offer some insights on behaviour and attitudes.
– Creating families: Using a family analogy, this technique is
used to uncover relationships between the target category and
other categories.
– Using fantasy and daydreams: Participants are provided
asked to describe topic related fantasies and daydreams in
order to surface characteristics or features that are important
to the study.
– Clay modeling: Participants are provided with different colored
clays and are requested to give shape to them to reflect their
feelings, thoughts.
 Advantages of projective technique
 Amount, richness and accuracy of the information that is collected is
reliable to an appreciating extent.
 Projective techniques can make a significant contribution if the
research is concerned with beliefs, values, motivation, personality or
other aspects related to individuals
 These techniques provide a view of the overall functioning of
individuals.
 A variety of projective techniques is frequently used in the context of
intensive individual interviews or conventional focus-group
discussions.
 Projective techniques may be used as a way of "breaking the ice" in a
focus-group discussion at the start of a qualitative research project.
 Subjects enjoy projective techniques that provides new energy in a
group discussion and lighten the mood or tone of the proceedings.
 The tasks presented to the subjects are usually somewhat novel and
quite unstructured.
 Most of these techniques make little or no demand in terms of literacy
or academic skills.
 Disadvantages of projective technique
 The complexity of the data and the corresponding skills required
of the researcher .The responses have little meaning without
careful evaluation by researchers who are both trained and skilled
interpreters of information.
 A considerable degree of subjectivity applies in the interpretation
of responses to projective techniques, and the experts frequently
disagree among themselves.
 Projective techniques are expensive to administer because highly
skilled research staff have to be employed.
 It is difficult to perform projective tests with statistically significant
samples, and this restricts generalization of the results to the
population as a whole.
 It may be difficult to get the subjects to project themselves into the
roles the researchers wish them to assume. Some subjects may
not agree to participate in exercises such as role playing.
 Q- SORTS
 Q-sorts are the powerful tools in which the participants are presented with
cards arrangement.
 In this technique, participated are provided pre-written cards with words,
phrases, or statements and asked to arrange these cards in order manner
along with a specific bipolar dimension.
 There are approximately 60 to 100 such cards that can be sorted out in 9 to 11
piles with few numbers of cards placed in each pile.
 Purposes of Q-sorts
– Q-sorts can be used in a variety of ways depending on the interest of the
researchers. With appropriate modifications, the scope of the research can be
expanded to answer many difficult issues.
– The Q-sorts can also be applied before and after an intervention to evaluate the
effectiveness of intervention.
 Advantages of Q-Sorts
 Q-sort offers a means for an in-depth study of small sample
populations;
 It can help with exploratory research;
 A well-developed theoretical literature guides and supports its usage;
 It captures subjectivity in operation through a person’s self-reference;
 Participants need not be randomly selected;
 It may be administered over the Internet.
 It focuses on in-depth analysis of small number of cases rather than
superficial study of large number of cases.
 Disadvantages Q-Sorts
 It is very time consuming and exhaustive procedure.
 It is not very cost effective.
 Only a small sample can be studied.
 Cannot be used to test hypothesis.
 Population and sample is not rigidly distributed.
 VIGNETTES
 Vignettes provide a valuable technique for exploring people’s
perceptions, beliefs and meanings about specific situations, and are
especially useful for sensitive areas of inquiry that may not be readily
assessable through other means.
 “The vignette technique is a method that can elicit perceptions,
opinions, beliefs and attitudes from responses or comments to stories
depicting scenarios and situations. Vignettes are employed in different
ways and for different purposes”.
 Finch (1987) describes them as “short stories about hypothetical
characters in specified circumstances, to whose situation the
interviewee is invited to respond”.
 Vignettes are short scenarios in written or pictorial form, intended to
elicit responses to typical scenarios (Hill, 1997)
 Uses of vignettes
 To tap general attitudes and beliefs: Vignettes have been used to elicit cultural
norms derived from respondents’ attitudes and beliefs about a specific situation.
 To explore sensitive topics: Vignettes can be useful in exploring potentially
sensitive topics that participants might otherwise find difficult to discuss.
 To compare perceptions of disparate groups: Vignettes also offer the
possibility of examining different groups’ interpretations of a ‘uniform’ situation.
 Used in focus group discussions: Vignettes can be used with participants
individually or within a ‘focus’ group, a method that is becoming increasingly
popular with social research.
 Used in multi-method approach: Vignettes have been widely used as a
complementary technique alongside other data collection methods. They can be
employed either to enhance existing data or to generate data not tapped by other
research methods (such as observation or interviews).
 Designing good vignettes
 Stories must appear plausible and real to participants
 Stories need to avoid depicting eccentric characters and disastrous events
 Vignettes need to contain sufficient context
 Participant’s ability to engage with the story may be enhanced
 Vignettes must be presented in an appropriate format
 Participants may initially provide socially desirable responses
 It is important that the stories presented in the vignettes are readily
understood, are internally consistent and not too complex.
 In some circumstances it may be desirable to include a control vignette to
see if any significant differences emerge.
 Advantages of vignettes
 Permit face-to-face contact with respondents.
 Provide opportunity to explore topics in depth.
 Allow interviewer to explain or help clarify questions, increasing the
likelihood of useful responses
 Make easy for respondents to reply to the concerned topic.
 Provides detailed data.
Disadvantages of vignettes
 Interviewee may distort information through recall error, selective
perceptions, desire to please interviewer.
 Interviewer clarifications can result in inconsistencies.
 Volume of information very large; may be difficult to record and
reduce data.
 Covers limited sample size.
 Involves subjective interpretations to wider extent.
 VALIDITY OF RESEARCH TOOL
 According to Treece and Treece “Validity refers to an instrument
or test actually testing what it suppose to be testing”.
 According to Polit and Hungler “Validity refers to the degree to
which an instrument measures what it suppose to measuring”.
 According to American Psychological Foundation “Validity is the
appropriateness, meaning, fullness and usefulness of the
interference made from the scoring of the instrument”.
 “Validity is the appropriateness, completeness and usefulness of
an attribute measuring research instrument”.
Type of validity
Basically validity is classified into following four categories;
Face validity
 Face validity involves an overall look of an instrument regarding its
appropriateness to measure a particular attribute or phenomenon.
 Face validity is not considered as very important and essential type of
validity for a instrument.
 In simple words, this aspect of validity refers to face value or the
outlook of an instrument.
– For example, a designed likert scale to measure the attitude of the nurses
for the patients admitted with HIV/AIDS; a research may judge the face
value of the this instrument that is look good or not; but it provide no
guarantee about the appropriateness and completeness of a research
instrument in regard of it content, construct and measurement score .
Content validity
 It is concerns with scope of coverage of the content area to be
measured.
 It is applied in tests of knowledge measurement.
 It is mostly used in measuring complex psychological tests of a
person.
 It is a case expert judgment about the adequacy, appropriateness
and completeness of the content area included in the research
instrument to measure a particular phenomenon.
 Judgment of the content viability may be subjective and are based
on previous researchers and experts opinion about the adequacy,
appropriateness and completeness of the content of instrument.
 Criterion validity
 This type of validity is a relationship between measurements of the
instrument with some other external criteria.
 The instrument is valid if its measurements strongly respond to the score of
some other valid criterion.
 The problems with criterion related validity is finding a reliable and valid
external criterion
 Here the range of co-efficient 0.70 is desirable. Criterion related validity
may be differentiated by predictive validity and concurrent validity.
– Predictive validity: It is the degree of forecasting judgment; for example, some
personality tests, academic futures of students can be predictive behaviour
pattern.
– Concurrent validity: It is the degree of the measures in present.
Construct validity
 A construct is founded in this type of validity such as a nurse may be designed
an instrument to measure the concept of pain in amputated patients. The pain
pattern may be due to anxiety; hence the results may be misleading.
 Construct validity is a key criterion for assessing the quality of a study and
construct validity has most often been addressed in terms of measurement
issues.
 The key construct validity questions with regard to measurements are; what is
this instrument really measuring? does it adequately measures the abstract
concept of interest?
 Construct validity gives more importance to testing relationship predicted on
theoretical measurements. The researcher can make prediction in relation to
other such type of constructs one method of construct validation is known
group technique.
 
RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH TOOL
 “Reliability is the degree of consistency and accuracy
with which an instrument measures the attribute for
which it is designed to measure.
 “Reliability is defined as the ability of an instrument to
create reproducible results”.
 Therefore, reliability is concerned with consistency of
the measurement tools. A tool only can be considered
reliable if it measures an attribute with similar results
on repeated use.
Measuring of reliability
 There are several ways to measure the reliability for the
research tools
– Stability: The stability aspect of reliability means, research
instrument provides same results when instruments are
administered consecutively for two more times.
– Stability is estimated to make sure that research instrument is
consistent in providing similar results with repeated
administration.
– It is also known as test-retest reliability.
– It is used for questionnaire, observation checklist, observation-
rating scales and physiological measurement tools.
 Statistical calculation (Test-retest method):
 Procedure of calculating test re-test reliability (stability) of research
instrument involves following steps:
 Administration of a research instrument to a sample of subjects on
two different occasions.
 Scores of the tool administered at two different occasions is
compared and calculated by using following formula of correlation
coefficient
 The correlation coefficient reveals the magnitude and directions of
relationship between scores generated by a research instrument at
two separate occasions.
 Interpretation of results: The results of the correlation coefficient
ranges between -1.00 through 0.0 to +1.00 and results are
interrelated as follows:
– * +1.00 score indicated the prefect reliability.
– * 0.00 Score indicate the no reliability.
– * A score above 0.70 indicated the acceptable level of reliability of a tool.
 Pearson’s correlation coefficient formula for estimation
of reliability:
∑XY - ∑X∑Y
n
 r =
∑X2– (∑X)2 ∑Y2 – (∑Y)2
n n
– Internal consistency: It is also called as homogeneity. Internal
consistency ensures that all the sub-parts of a research instrument
are measuring the same characteristics. For example, a patients’
satisfaction measurement scale must include all the sub-parts related
to measurement of satisfaction only.
– One of the most primitive approaches of assessing the internal
consistency is the split-half technique.
– To over it drawback as estimation of different correlation coefficient
results with different combination of split half (odd-even, first half-
second-half etc.) this method is replaced by formulas that
compensate this deficiency such as Cronbach’s alpha and the
Kunder-Richardon formula-20.
 Statistical calculation (split half method):
 Procedure of calculating split half reliability of research instrument involves
following steps:
 Divide items of a research instrument in two equal parts through grouping either
in odd number question and even number question or first half and seconds half
item groups.
 Administer tow sub-parts of the tool simultaneously, score then undependably
and compute the correlation coefficient on the two separate scores by using
following formula .
 (x – x ) (y – y )
 Formula-9.2 r =  (x – x )2 x (y – y )2
 In split half, to over come the underestimation of reliability of entire scale; as
above formula has estimated reliability of only half items; following formula is
used to estimate the reliability of entire test.
2r
 Formula-9.3 r1 = 1 + r
 Where; r = the correlation coefficient computed on the split halves with formula
9.2. r1 = the estimated reliability of the entire test
 The split half technique is frequently used to estimate the intenal consistency
however, a more preferred method Cronbach’s alpha or coefficient alpha may be
calculated by using following formula :
 k  21
 Formula-9.4 r= 1-
 k–1  y2
  Where; r = the estimated reliability
 k= the total number of items in the test.
 21 = the variance of each individual items.
  y2 = The variance of the total test scores
  = the sum of
 – Equivalence: This aspect of reliability is estimated when a researcher is
testing the reliability of a tool, which is used by two different observers to
observe a single phenomenon simultaneously and independently or two
presumably parallel instruments are administered to individual at about the
same time.
– For example, a rating scale is developed to cleanliness of the bone marrow
transplantation unit; this rating may be administered to observe the
cleanliness of the bone marrow transplantation unit by two different
observers simultaneously but independently.
– This is also know as interrater reliability or interobserver reliability, which is
estimated by administration of tool to observe single event simultaneously
and independently by two or more trained observers. This reliability may be
computed by using following equation:
Number of agreements
 r=
Number of agreements + Number of disagreements
PILOT STUDY
 A pilot study is referred as a small-scale preliminary tryout of the
method to be used in a actual large study, which acquaint the
researcher with problems that can be corrected in proportion for
the large research study or is done to provide the researcher with
an opportunity to try out the procedure, methods and tools of data
collection.
 The pilot study is miniature trial run of the methodology planned
for the major research study, which facilitates to improve the
methodology of the study, can assess the feasibility of the study
and may identify the problems may be faced by the researcher in
actual large research project.
 Purposes of pilot study
 To study feasibility and practicability of research study.
 To assess the availability of study subjects.
 To assess validity and reliability of the research tools.
 To ensure the appropriateness of methods and procedures of data
collection.
 To understand the study variables and other confounding variables.
 To estimate the actual time and potential problems research may
encounter during the actual large research study.
 To refine methodology.
 To plan for the data analysis and interpretation of the final larger research.
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