SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

SYLLABUS
1. Satellite Orbits and Trajectories

2. Satellite subsystem & Earth Station

3. Multiple Access Techniques & Satellite Link Design Fundamentals

4. Communication Satellites

5. Remote Sensing Satellites , Weather Forecasting Satellites & Navigation

Satellites
Orbital Parameters
• Ascending and descending nodes
• Equinoxes
• Solstices
• Apogee
• Perigee
• Eccentricity
• Semi-major axis
• Right ascension of the ascending node
• Inclination
• Argument of the perigee
• True anomaly of the satellite
• Angles defining the direction of the satellite
 What is a Satellite?

• A satellite in general is any natural or artificial

body moving around a celestial body such as
planets and stars.

• Here the reference is made only to artificial

satellites orbiting the planet Earth. These
satellites are put into the desired orbit and have
payloads depending upon the intended
application.
Communication Satellite
Earth Observing Satellite
Weather Forecasting Satellite and Military
Satellite
Sputnik 1
 History of Evolution of Satellites
• Hot Air Balloons and Sounding Rockets
• Launch of Early Artificial Satellites
• Satellites for Communication, Meteorology and
Scientific Explorations
• Non-Geosynchronous Communication Satellites
• Geosynchronous Communication Satellites
• International Communication Satellites
• Domestic Communication Satellites
 SATELLITE ORBITS & TRAJECTORIES

• TRAJECTORY- Path traced by the moving body.

• ORBIT-Trajectory that is periodically repeated.

Ex: Motion of different planets of the solar

system around the sun and the motion of
artificial satellites around Earth
Example of orbital motion – satellites Example of trajectory – path followed by
revolving around Earth a rocket on its way during satellite launch
 Example of trajectory – motion of a satellite
from the intermediate orbit to the final orbit
 Orbiting Satellites – Basic Principles

Fig: Gravitational force and the centrifugal force acting on bodies orbiting Earth
Newton’s Law of Gravitation

• Newton’s law of gravitation, every particle

irrespective of its mass attracts every
other particle with a gravitational force whose
magnitude is directly proportional to the
product of the masses of the two particles and
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
where
m1, m2 = masses of the two particles
r = distance between the two particles
G = gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10-11 m3/kg s2

Fig: Newton’s law of gravitation

 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• In the case of a satellite orbiting Earth, if the orbiting
velocity is v, then the acceleration, called centripetal
acceleration, experienced by the satellite at a distance r
from the centre of the Earth would be

• If the mass of satellite is m, it would experience a

reaction force of
where
m1 = mass of Earth
m2 = mass of the satellite
μ = Gm1 = 3.986 013 × 105 km3/s2 = 3.986 013 × 1014 N m2/kg

The orbital period in such a case can be computed from

Kepler’s First Law
1. The orbit of a satellite around Earth is elliptical with the centre
of the Earth lying at one of the foci of the ellipse.
2. Eccentricity (e) is the ratio of the distance between the centre
of the ellipse and either of its foci (= ae) to the semi-major axis of
the ellipse a.

Fig: Kepler’s first law

•The law of conservation of energy is valid at all points on the
orbit.

•In the context of satellites, it means that the sum of the kinetic
and the potential energy of a satellite always remain constant. The
value of this constant is equal to -Gm1m2/(2a), where

m1 = mass of Earth
m2 = mass of the satellite
a = semi-major axis of the orbit
 Kepler’s Second Law
The line joining the satellite and the centre of the Earth sweeps
out equal areas in the plane of the orbit in equal time intervals
ie the rate (dA/dt) at which it sweeps area A is constant.

The rate of change of the swept-out area is given by

 Fig: Satellite’s position at any given time

Kepler’s second law is also equivalent to the law of conservation of

momentum, which implies that the angular momentum of the
orbiting satellite given by the product of the radius vector and the
component of linear momentum perpendicular to the radius
vector is constant at all points on the orbit.
where
vp = velocity at the perigee point
rp = perigee distance
va = velocity at the apogee point
ra = apogee distance
v = satellite velocity at any point in the orbit
r = distance of the point
γ = angle between the direction of motion of the
satellite and the local horizontal
Kepler’s Third Law
• The square of the time period of any satellite is proportional to
the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit.

• A circular orbit with radius r is assumed.

• A circular orbit is only a special case of an elliptical orbit with

both the semi-major axis and semi-minor axis equal to the
radius.
Equating the gravitational force with the centrifugal force gives
The above equation holds good for elliptical orbits provided r is
replaced by the semi-major axis a. This gives the expression for
the time period of an elliptical orbit as
Orbital Parameters
• Ascending and descending nodes
• Equinoxes
• Solstices
• Apogee
• Perigee
• Eccentricity
• Semi-major axis
• Right ascension of the ascending node
• Inclination
• Argument of the perigee
• True anomaly of the satellite
• Angles defining the direction of the satellite
Ascending and descending nodes
 Equinoxes

Fig: Yearly variation of angular

inclination of Earth with the sun

Fig: Vernal equinox

 Solstices
• Solstices are the times when the inclination
angle is at its maximum, i.e. 23.4◦.

• These also occur twice during a year on 20-21

June, called the summer solstice, and 21-22
December, called the winter solstice
Apogee
Apogee is the point on the satellite orbit that is at the farthest
distance from the centre of the Earth. The apogee distance can also
be computed from the known values of the perigee distance
and velocity at the perigee Vp .
Apogee distance , A = a (1 + e)

Fig: Apogee
Perigee
Perigee is the point on the orbit that is nearest to the centre of
the Earth .
Perigee distance, P = a (1 - e)

Fig: Perigee
 Eccentricity
The orbit eccentricity e is the ratio of the distance between the
centre of the ellipse and the centre of the Earth to the semi-major
axis of the ellipse. It can be computed from any of the following
expressions:
Semi-major axis
This is a geometrical parameter of an elliptical orbit. It can be
computed from known values of apogee and perigee distances as
Right ascension of the ascending node
It describes the orientation of the line of nodes, which is the line
joining the ascending and descending nodes, with respect to the
direction of the vernal equinox. It is expressed as an angle Ω
measured from the vernal equinox towards the line of nodes in the
direction of rotation of Earth.
Inclination
Inclination is the angle that the orbital plane of the satellite makes
with the Earths’s equatorial plane.
Argument of the perigee
This defines the location of the major axis of the satellite orbit. It
is measured as the angle ω between the line joining the perigee
and the centre of the Earth and the line of nodes .
True anomaly of the satellite
This parameter is used to indicate the position of the satellite in
its orbit. This is done by defining an angle , called the true
anomaly of the satellite, formed by the line joining the perigee
and the centre of the Earth with the line joining the satellite and
the centre of the Earth.
Angles defining the direction of the satellite
The direction of the satellite is defined by two angles, the first by
angle γ between the direction of the satellite’s velocity vector and
its projection in the local horizontal and the second by angle Az
between the north and the projection of the satellite’s velocity
vector on the local horizontal.
Injection Velocity and Resulting Satellite Trajectories
The phenomenon is best explained in terms of the three cosmic
velocities. The general expression for the velocity of a satellite at
the perigee point (VP), assuming an elliptical orbit, is given by

where
R = apogee distance
P = perigee distance
μ = GM = constant
The first cosmic velocity V1 is the one at which apogee and perigee
distances are equal, i.e. R = r, and the orbit is circular. The above
expression then reduces to

Fig: Satellite’s path where the injection velocity is equal to the first orbital velocity
If the injection velocity happens to be less than the first cosmic
velocity, the satellite follows a ballistic trajectory and falls back to
Earth. In fact, in this case, the orbit is elliptical and the injection
point is at the apogee and not the perigee.

Fig: Satellite’s path where the injection velocity is less than the first orbital velocity
 =

For injection velocity greater than the first cosmic velocity and less
than the second cosmic velocity, i.e.= V > √(μ/r) and V < √(2μ/r),
the orbit is elliptical and eccentric.

When the injection velocity equals √ (2μ/r), the apogee distance

R becomes infinite and the orbit takes the shape of a parabola.
If the injection velocity is increased further, a stage is reached
where the satellite succeeds in escaping from the solar system.
This is known as the third cosmic velocity

The third cosmic velocity (V3) is mathematically expressed as

Fig : Family of curves showing the apogee height for various values of the injection
velocity
Problem 2.15

A satellite launched with an injection velocity of v1 from a point above the

surface of the Earth at a distance r from the centre of the Earth attains an
elliptical orbit with an apogee distance of R1. The same satellite when
launched with an injection velocity of v2 from the same perigee distance
attains an elliptical orbit with an apogee distance of R2. Derive the relationship
between v1 and v2 in terms of r, R1 and R2.

Squaring the two expressions and then taking the ratio of the two yields
Problem 2.16

A satellite launched with an injection velocity of (v1) from a point above the
surface of the Earth at a distance of (r) of 8000 km from the centre of the Earth
attains an elliptical orbit with an apogee distance of 12 000 km. The same satellite
when launched with an injection velocity of (v2) that is 20 % higher than (v1) from
the same perigee distance attains an elliptical orbit with an apogee distance of
(R2). Determine the new apogee distance.

Solution:

We know that: (v2/v1)2 = [(1 + r/R1)/(1 + r/R2)]

Substituting v2 = 1.2v1, we get 1.44 = [(1 + 8000/12 000)/(1 + 8000/R2)]
or 1.44 × 3 × (1 + 8000/R2) = 5 or (1 + 8000/R2) = 1.1574
R2 = 8000/0.1574 = 50 826 km
Types of Satellite Orbits
The satellite orbits can be classified
on the basis of:
1. Orientation of the orbital plane
2. Eccentricity
3. Distance from Earth

Orientation of the Orbital Plane

The orbital plane of the satellite can have various orientations
with respect to the equatorial plane of Earth. The angle between
the two planes is called the angle of inclination of the satellite. On
this basis, the orbits can be classified as
equatorial orbits, polar orbits and inclined orbits.
 Fig: Equatorial orbit

Fig: Polar orbit

Fig: Prograde orbit Fig: Retrograde orbit

Orbit Types: Distance from Earth

Fig: Iridium constellation of satellites

Fig: LEO, MEO and GEO orbits
Low Earth orbit (LEO)
• Satellites in the low Earth orbit (LEO) circle Earth at a height of
around 160 to 500 km above the surface of the Earth.

• Shorter orbital periods and smaller signal propagation delays.

• The power required for signal transmission is also less.

• One important application of LEO satellites for communication

is the project Iridium.
Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
• Satellites orbit at a distance of approximately 10 000
to 20 000 km above the surface of the Earth.

• Orbital period of 6 to 12 hours. These satellites stay

in sight over a particular region of Earth for a longer
time.

• Communication and navigation applications

Geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO)
• Prograde orbit whose orbital period is equal to Earth’s rotational
period.

• Height of about 36 000 km, 35 786 km to be precise, above the surface

of the Earth.

• The orbital period should be equal to 23 hours 56 minutes, which

implies that the satellite must orbit at a height of 35 786 km above the
surface of the Earth.

• The satellite motion must be from west to east.

Fig: GEO satellites appear stationary with respect to a point on Earth
Sun-synchronous Orbit
A sun-synchronous orbit, also known as a heliosynchronous orbit,
is one that lies in a plane that maintains a fixed angle with respect
to the Earth–sun direction.

Fig: Sun-synchronous orbit

Satellites in sun-synchronous orbits are particularly suited to
applications like passive remote sensing, meteorological, military
reconnaissance and atmospheric studies.

Fig: Earth coverage of sun-synchronous satellites

Every time a sun-synchronous satellite completes one revolution

around Earth, it traverses a thin strip on the surface of the Earth.
Orbital Effects on Satellite’s Performance
The motion of the satellite has significant effects on its
performance. These include the Doppler shift, effect due to
variation in the orbital distance, effect of solar eclipse and sun’s
transit outrage.

Doppler Shift
As the satellite is moving with respect to the Earth station
terminal, the frequency of the satellite transmitter also varies
with respect to the receiver on the Earth station terminal. If the
frequency transmitted by the satellite is fT, then the received
frequency fR.
Where,
vT is the component of the satellite transmitter velocity
vector directed towards the Earth station receiver
vP is the phase velocity of light in free space (3 × 108
m/s)
Solar Eclipse

• There are times when the satellites do not receive solar

radiation due to obstruction from a celestial body.
• During these periods the satellites operate using onboard
batteries.
• Ground control stations perform battery conditioning
routines prior to the occurrence of an eclipse
to ensure best performance during the eclipse.
• he rapidity with which the satellite enters and exits the
shadow of the celestial
body creates sudden temperature stress situations.
Sun Transit Outrage

Fig: Sun outrage conditions

• The Earth station antenna will receive signals from the
satellite as well as the
microwave radiation emitted by the sun.

• This might cause temporary outrage if the magnitude

of the solar radiation
exceeds the fade margin of the receiver.

• The traffic of the satellite may be shifted to other

satellites during such periods.
Eclipses

• An eclipse is said to occur when the sunlight fails to

reach the satellite’s solar panel due to an obstruction
from a celestial body.

• The eclipse is total; i.e. the satellite fails to receive

any light whatsoever if it passes through the umbra,
which is the dark central region of the shadow, and
receives very little light if it passes through the
penumbra, which is the less dark region surrounding
the umbra.
 Fig: Solar eclipse

Fig: Umbra and penumbra

•The eclipse is seen on 42 nights during the spring and an equal number
of nights during the autumn by the geostationary satellite.

•The spring and autumn equinoxes respectively occur on 20–21 March

and 22–23 September.

•During the equinoxes in March and September, the

satellite, the Earth and the sun are aligned at midnight local time and the
satellite spends about 72 minutes in total darkness.

•From 21 days before and 21 days after the equinoxes, the satellite
crosses the umbral cone each day for some time, thereby receiving only
a part of solar light
for that time.
Fig: Positions of the geostationary satellite during the equinoxes and solstices
Fig: Duration of the eclipse before and after the equinox
• The duration of an eclipse increases from zero to about 72
minutes starting 21 days before the equinox and then decreases
from 72 minutes to zero during 21 days following the equinox.

• The duration of an eclipse on a given day around the equinox

can be seen from the graph.

• Another type of eclipse known as the lunar eclipse occurs when

the moon’s shadow passes across the satellite. This is much less
common and
occurs once in 29 years.
Fig: Lunar eclipse
Look Angles of a Satellite
• The look angles of a satellite refer to the coordinates to which an
Earth station must be
pointed in order to communicate with the satellite and are
expressed in terms of azimuth and elevation angles.

• The process of pointing the Earth station antenna accurately

towards the satellite can be accomplished if the azimuth and
elevation angles of the Earth station location are known.

• The location of a satellite is very often determined by the position

of the sub-satellite point.
Fig: Sub-satellite point
Azimuth Angle

• The azimuth angle A of an Earth station is

defined as the angle produced by the line of
intersection of the local horizontal plane and
the plane passing through the Earth station,
the satellite and the centre of the Earth with
the true north.
Fig: Azimuth angle
Earth station in the northern hemisphere:

When the Earth station is to the west of the satellite

When the Earth station is to the east of the satellite

Earth station in the southern hemisphere:

When the Earth station is to the west of the satellite

When the Earth station is to the east of the satellite

where A’ can be computed from

where
θs = satellite longitude
θL = Earth station longitude
θl = Earth station latitude
Elevation Angle

The Earth station elevation angle E is the angle between the line of
intersection of the local horizontal plane and the plane passing
through the Earth station, the satellite and the centre of the Earth
with the line joining the Earth station and the satellite.

where
r = orbital radius, R = Earth’s radius
θs = Satellite longitude, θL = Earth station
longitude, θl = Earth station latitude
Fig: Earth station elevation angle
Figures show the elevation angles for two
different satellite and Earth station positions
Fig: Earth station elevation angle
Computing the Slant Range

Slant range of a satellite is defined as the range or the distance of

the satellite from the Earth station. The elevation angle E, as
mentioned earlier, has a direct bearing on the slant range.

Fig: Elevation angle, slant range and coverage angle

The slant range can be computed from

A larger slant range means a longer propagation delay time and

a greater impairment of signal quality, as the signal has to travel
a greater distance through the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Computing the Line-of-Sight Distance between Two
Satellites
The line-of-sight distance between two satellites placed in the same
circular orbit can be computed from triangle ABC formed by the
points of location of two satellites and the centre of the Earth.

The line-of-sight distance AB

 Fig: Maximum line-of-sight distance between
two satellites

The maximum line-of-sight distance (AB) equals OA + OB, which

further equals 2OA or 2OB as OA = OB. If R is the radius of the
Earth and H is the height of satellites above the surface of the
Earth, then
Problem 3.7
Determine the maximum possible line-of-sight distance between
two geostationary satellites orbiting the Earth at a height of 36 000
km above the surface of the Earth. Assume the radius of the Earth
to be 6370 km.

Solution:
Maximum line-of-sight distance can be computed from
Problem 3.8
A satellite in the Intelsat-VI series is located at 37◦W and another belonging to the
Intelsat-VII series is located at 74◦E . If both these satellites are in a
circular equatorial geostationary orbit with an orbital radius of 42 164 km,
determine the inter-satellite distance.
Angle θ will be the angular separation of the longitudes of the two satellites. For
example, if the two satellites are located at 30◦E and 60◦E, θ would be equal to 30◦.
If the two locations are 30◦W and 60◦E, then in that case θ would be 90◦.

Figure for Problem 3.8

 Problem 3.9
An Earth station is located at 30◦W longitude and 60◦N latitude. Determine the
Earth station’s azimuth and elevation angles with respect to a geostationary
satellite located at 50◦W longitude. The orbital radius is 42 164 km. (Assume the
radius of the Earth to be 6378 km.)
Solution:
Since the Earth station is in the northern hemisphere and is located towards
east of the satellite, the azimuth angle A is given by (180◦ + A’), where A’ can be
computed from
Problem 3.10
Consider two Earth stations, X and Y, with longitudes at 60◦W and
90◦W respectively and latitudes at 30◦N and 45◦N respectively. They
are communicating with each other via a geostationary satellite
located at 105◦W. Find the total delay in sending 500 kbs of
information if the transmission speed is 10 Mbps. Assume the orbital
radius to be 42 164 km and the radius of the Earth to be 6378 km.

Solution:
In the first step, the elevation angles of the two Earth stations
are determined:
In the next step, the slant range of the two Earth stations will
be determined. Refer to Figure . The slant range (dX) of the
Earth station X can be computed from