Classification of Elements
Sanjida Sharmin
International Islamic University Chittagong
Department of Pharmacy
Reference book:
Introduction to Modern Inorganic Chemistry
---------------------------------S.Z. Haider
Modern Periodic law
The modern statement of periodic law is:
The physical and the chemical properties of the
elements are periodic function of their atomic
number.
Modern Periodic Table
Periods: there are total 7 periods.
The first short period contains only two elements—
hydrogen and helium (1s2).
The second short period consists of 8 elements
beginning with lithium and ending with Neon (1s 22s22p6).
The third short period consists of 8 elements beginning
with sodium and ending with Argon (1s22s22p63s23p6).
The forth period is the first long period containing 18
elements. This period begins with potassium (Z=19) and
ends with inert gas krypton (Z=36).
The fifth period also consists of 18 elements. It begins
with rubidium (Z=37) and ends with xenon (Z=54).
The sixth period consists of 32 elements. This period
starts from cesium (Z=55) and ends with radon(Z=86).
The 14 elements starting from Ce (58) to Lu (71) all have
almost identical chemical properties and all are placed
in the same position known as Lanthanides.
The seventh period is still incomplete. The first element
is francium (Fr=87). From actinium (89) a new seies of
elements starts which is known as actinides.
Groups:
The vertical arrangements of elements in the periodic
table are called groups. The groups are numbered IA,
IIA, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, VIII, IB, IIB, IIIA, IVA, VA,
VIA, VIIA and 0.
Types of elements
According to the electronic configurations, the
elements may be divided into four types.
1) the inert gases (element of 0 group)
2) the representative elements (s and p block
elements)
3) the transition elements (d block elements)
4) The inner transition element (f block elements)
The inert gases:
The zero group elements have been placed at the end of each
period in the Periodic Table. The elements having s 2p6
electronic arrangement in the outermost level are very stable.
Helium has 2s2 stable arrangement and all other inert gases
have s2p6 outer configurations. These elements are colorless
gases.
The representative elements:
These elements generally belong to A sub-group of the
Periodic Table. Alkali metal (IA) and alkaline earth metals
(IIA) are s block elements. The valance electrons of all the
elements from boron to halogens (Group IIIA to group VIIA
vertically) occupy p orbitals. These elements are called p block
elements. They generally form colorless compounds.
The transition elements (d block elements):
These elements are generally heavy metals of sub-group B.
they contain two incomplete energy levels because of the
building up of the inner d electrons. They generally form
colored compound.
1st transition series: Sc (21) to Zn (30)
2nd transition series: Y (39) to Cd (48)
3rd transition series: La (57)to Hg (80)
The inner transition element (f block elements):
They have three incomplete energy levels because of the
building up of the inner f electrons. Their compounds are
highly colored. These elements are:
Lanthanides (4f orbital is being build up): Ce (58) to Lu (71)
Actinides (5f orbital is being build up): Th (90) to Lr (103)
What are the differences between transition and
inner transition element?
Variation of properties within Periods and
groups
1. Variation of metallic character of the elements: in the periodic table the
metallic character of the elements decrease from left to right progressing in the
series but increases in moving vertically from top to bottom in the groups. For
instance, the most non-metallic elements F, Cl, O, S, N are found at the upper
right of the periodic table and most basic metals are at the lower left of the table.
2. Variation in atomic size: the atomic size in each succeeding element in a period
decreases but the atomic radii of inert gases at the end of the period are larger
than the preceding atoms. In the same period, the succeeding electrons go into
the same energy levels they are subjected to greater attraction by increasing
nuclear charge and results in gradual decrease in the atomic size.
Vertically in the groups the succeeding elements have increasing atomic radii
because of increased energy level.
3. Variation in ionic radii: the is a considerable
decrease in size due to the loss of the outermost
electron. In the series Na+, Mg2+ Al3+ , Si4+ are
isoelectronic with argon configuration. The greater
the nuclear charge the smaller the is the ionic radius
in this series.
The negative ions are formed by addition of one or
more electrons to the outermost energy level. In a
same period negative ions will have larger radii due to
larger number of electron shells.
4. Variation in ionization potentials: ionization potential is
defined as the energy required to remove the outermost electron
from the atom. The greater the nuclear charge of atoms having the
same number of electron orbit, the higher the ionization potential.
The elements have gradually increasing ionization potential in the
same period and decreasing I.P. within a group. For example,
metals generally have small I.P. and non-metals have large values.
5. Variation in electron affinity: electron affinity is a measure of
the energy released when an electron is added to the atom to form
a negative ion. Metals have small electron affinity and non-metal
have large values of E.A. So, in a given period succeeding elements
have higher electron affinities.
6. Variation in electronegativities: electronegativity is the power
of attraction for electron in a covalent bond. The most electro-
negative elements are found towards the end of the periods.
Elements show gradually decreasing electro-negativity value
within the group. For example: alkali metals are lest and halogens
are most electronegative and this value decreases from fluorine to
iodine.
7. Variation in the stability of oxidation state: the transition
elements generally exhibit more than one oxidation states. E.g
chromium shows +2, +3 and +6 states. The higher oxidation states
become more stable near bottom of each transition metal group.
8. Variation in oxidizing and reducing powers: the non-metal at
the extreme right of the periodic table having higher electron
affinity acts as oxidising agents in chemical reaction. On the other
hand, reducing power is highest with metals at the beginning of
the period as they have lower electron affinity but higher
ionisation potential.
9. Variation in basic properties: the metals on the left of the
periodic table form basic oxides and the non-metals on the right
form acidic oxides.
10. Variation in physical properties: density, m.p, b.p., hardness,
thermal conductivity likewise show periodic variation. The inert
gases show minimum m.p and bp and elements of group IV and
VI have maximum values.
Usefulness of Periodic Table
Classification of the elements: the classification of elements of
similar properties into groups simplified their study. For instance,
sodium reacts with water vigorously to form H2 gas and Sodium
hydroxide. The other alkali metals (IA gr) also react with water in a
similar manner.
Prediction of undiscovered elements: at present all the elements
from atomic number 1 to 105 has been discovered. But a remarkable
use of periodic table was the prediction of a number of undiscovered
elements. Mendeleeff’s periodic table contained only 65 elements
with many vacant places. He predicted existence and properties of 6
elements. These elements (Sc, Ga, Ge, Tc, Re, Po) has been discovered
and there properties are quite similar to those predictions.
Correction of atomic weight:
At the time of mendeleeff, wrong atomic weight of
some elements gave them a wrong position in the
periodic table. The properties of these elements
required their placement somewhere else. For
example, after correction of atomic weight, Indium
(z=114) was placed in between Cd (112.4) and Sn (118.7).
Periodic table in industrial research: periodic table
is quite useful for industrial research. For example,
light metals and their alloys used in modern
mechanical equipment, jet engines and air-crafts.
Another example, Development of freon, a non-toxic,
non-inflammable refrigerant. Compounds of non-
metallic elements in the upper right-hand region are
volatile enough to act as refrigerant. Thereby, freon
(CF2Cl2) was developed.
limitation of periodic table
Position of hydrogen: the position of hydrogen in
the periodic table is left undecided. It has similar
properties with both the alkali metals and helogens. It
is gas like flurine and chlorine and from similar
compounds (CH4, CCl4).
On the other hand, H2 resembles lithium and other
alkali metals: It has one electron 1s1 which can be lost
to form hydrogen ion.
Anomalies in the Mendeleeff’s table: in Mendeleeff’s
periodic table, anomalies were observed as elements were
arranged on the basis of their atomic weight. For example,
potassium (39.1) should come before argon (39.94). These
anomalies disappeared when they were arranged in
accordance with their atomic number.
The position of rare earth (lanthanides): these
elements have two outermost shells identically occupied
which gave them great similarity in properties. All of them
are placed in a single position. They are generally omitted
from the main table and placed at the bottom of the table.
Position of actinides: the electronic configuration of these
elements are very similar to that of lanthanides. Elements of both of
these groups contain f energy levels. Like lanthanides Actinides are
also placed in the same position of the Periodic table and are
tabulated at the bottom.
Oxidation state and periodic table: the position of elements in
periodic table indicated only one oxidation number for each
element. But most of them show more than one oxidation number.
Properties which are not periodic functions:
Electromotive series (E.M.F series) do not show periodic variation.
Some-elements of B-sub group does not show likeness in their
properties.
Placement of Isotopes: when elements were arranged in
accordance with their atomic weight, Isotopes should be placed
in different places. As they have different atomic weight but same
atomic number. Classification on the basis of atomic number has
solved this problem.
Diagonal relationships: elements of one group show similarity
in property with the second elements of the following groups.
This is known as diagonal relationship. For example, Li of group
IA resembles Mg of group IIA in many respects. Unlike other
alkali metal Li2CO3 and Li3PO4 are insoluble in water which are
corresponding to magnesium carbonate and phosphate.
Physical properties of alkali
the most reactive metals.
soft texture and silvery color.
have low boiling and melting points
less dense than most elements.
Lithium, sodium, and potassium float on water
because of their low density.
All of the alkali metals are found naturally in nature,
but not in their pure forms.
Physical properties alkaline earth metals
highly metallic
good conductors of electricity.
They have a gray-white lustre when freshly cut but
tarnish readily in air.
Have higher melting points and boiling points than
alkali metals
magnesium having the lowest mp (650 °C) and bp
(1,090 °C)
beryllium the highest
Physical properties of halogens
The halogens have low melting points and boiling
points.
At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases,
bromine is a liquid, and iodine and astatine are solids.
fluorine is very pale yellow, chlorine is yellow-green,
and bromine is red-brown. Iodine crystals are shiny
purple.
Chlorine, bromine and iodine are soluble in water.
What are the pharmaceutical applications of alkali,
alkaline earth metal and halogen?
