• Topic 1: Armature Windings Construction

Rules

• Both back pitch (YB) and front pitch (YF) are odd
and are of opposite signs. 
1) YB = YF + 2 ....for progressive winding.
2) YB = YF - 2 ....for retrogressive winding. 
• YB and YF should be nearly equal to pole pitch.
• Number of commutator segments = Number of
slots = Number of coils

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 • Topic 2: Conclusive Remarks
•• Total
  number of brushes = The number of poles
• The armature winding is divided into as many parallel paths as the number of poles:

where ,
Z = total number of armature conductor
P =number of pole

• E.M.F. generated = E.M.F. per parallel path

= average e.m.f. per conductor
• Total Armature Current, Ia= P current per parallel path
• The Armature Resistance

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 • Topic 4:Types Of Dc Generator
• Dc generators are divided into the following two classes:
           (i) Separately excited d.c. generators.
           (ii) Self-excited d.c. generators.

• Separately excited d.c. generators:

          Armature current, Ia = IL
          Terminal voltage, V = Eg - IaRa  
          Electric power developed = EgIa
          Power delivered to load = EgIa- Ia2Ra  = VIa

                                                          Fig 1: Separately excited

                                         
• Self-excited d.c. generators:​
    There are three types of self-excited generators
depending
    upon manner in which the field winding is​ connecte
    to  the armature.​

1. Series generator:​
    Armature current, Ia = Ise = IL = I(say)​
    Terminal voltage, V = Eg  - I(Ra + Rse)​
    Power developed in armature = EgIa​
    Power delivered to load= EgIa- Ia2Ra  -Ia2 Rse= VIa          Fig 2: Seriesgenerator
 Topic 6:losses in Dc machine
•Copper losses
1. Armature Cu loss = Ia2Ra          (where, Ia = Armature current and Ra= Armature
resistance)
2. Shunt field Cu loss= Ish2Rsh      (where, Ish = Shunt field current and Rsh = Shunt
field resistance)
3. Series field Cu loss= Ise2Rse          (where, Ise = series field current and Rse = series
field resistance)
•Iron Losses
         Hysteresis loss: Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the
armature core.
Hysteresis loss is given by, Steinmetz formula:

Wh=ηBmax1.6fV (watts)

where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant

             V = volume of the core in m3

Eddy current loss: When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is
also induced in the core (just like it induces in armature
 conductors), according to the Faradays law of electromagnetic  induction. Though
this induced emf is small, it causes a large current to flow
 in the body due to the low resistance of the core. This current is known as eddy
current. The power loss due to this current is known as eddy current loss.

Mechanical losses:
These losses are due to friction and windage.
(i) friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc.
(ii) windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature.
NOTE: Iron losses and mechanical losses together are called rotational losses.
 • Topic 7:Constant and variable losses
The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may be sub-divided into
 (i)constant losses 
(ii) variable losses.

• Constant losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all loads are known as
constant losses. The constant losses in a d.c. generator are:
(a) iron losses
(b) mechanical losses
(c) shunt field losses
•  Variable losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called variable losses.
The variable losses in a d.c. generator are:
(a) Copper loss in armature winding =Ia2Ra  
(b) Copper loss in series field winding = Ise2Rse 
Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses
NOTE:Field Cu loss is constant for shunt and compound generators.
 Topic 8: Power Stages
•• Efficiency
  : It may be defined as 'the ratio of output in watt (or KW) to the input in watt (or KW)‘

• Mechanical Efficiency: ηm

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••  Electrical Efficiency: ηe

• Commercial or Overall Efficiency: ηc

So, ηc ηm

Now, ηc

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 • Topic 9:Condition For maximum Efficiency
• 
In general when we try to calculate efficiency we need its input and output value. Because efficiency
. In generator our output is V
, where is load current and the input is output with load losses . Because when we operate a machine it perform some unusual work
that can’t
be prevented . So some losses occur . For that we have to calculate those losses for measuring the [Link] generator losses can be
variable or
constant. So
input =output+variable losses+Constant losses
=V+
=V+

Now = =
In general we know that a fraction will be maximum when the denominator will be minimum
So

() =0

Or, =0

Or,
 Now = =
In general we know that a fraction will be maximum when the denominator will be minimum
So ,
() =0

Or, =0
or, =
Variable loss=Constant loss
Example 2.10: Calculate the e.m.f generated by a 4 pole wave-wound generator having 65 slots with
12 conductors per slot when driven at 1200 r.p.m. The flux per pole is 0.02 Wb.

••  Solution:
We know, Eg • 
Here,
P=4
Z = 12 = 780
= 0.02 Wb
N = 1200 r.p.m.
A = 2 (Wave-wound)

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Example 2.11: A 6-pole lap wound D.C generator has 600 conductors on its armature. The flux per
pole is 0.02 Wb.

(a) The speed at which the generator must be run to generate 300V.
(b) What would be the speed if the the generator were wave-wound?

• 
• Solution:
• 
Here,
(a) For lap wound, A
Eg = 300 Volts
Now, Eg
P=6
⇒ N
Z = 600
(b) For wave-wound, A
= 0.02 Wb
Now, Eg

⇒ N
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Example 2.12:An 8 pole ,lap-wound armature rotated at 350 r.p.m. is required to generated 260 V .T
he useful flix per pole is 0.05 Wb. If the armature has 120 slots,calculate the number of conductors
per slot. 

•• Solution:
 
We know, Here,
  Eg = Eg =260v
or, Z = P=8
  =   Φ=0.05wb
  =890 N=350r.p.m
No. Of conductors/slot = A=8
                   = 7.41
                  
Example 2.14: The armature of a d.c. generator has 81 slots and the commutator has 243
segments .It is wound to give lap winding having 1 turn per [Link] the flux per pole is 30
[Link] the generated e.m.f. at a speed of 1200 r.p.m. number of poles is 6.

• Solution:  
Each turn has two conductor. So, here,
we know, Z=243
Eg =
= P=A=6
=291.6 volts N=1200 r.p.m
Example 2.15:The armature of a 2-pole,200 V generator has 400 conductors and runs at 300 r.p.m.
If the number of turns in each field coil is 1200,what is the average value of e.m.f. induced in each
coil on breaking the field if the flux dies away completely in 0.1s?

•• Solution:
 
we know, here,
Eg = Z=400
so, N=300 r.p.m.
= Eg=200 V
=0.1 Wb =1
so,
the average value of e.m.f. = n
=1200=1200 volts
Example 2.26: A 4-pole lap wound d.c generator has a useful flux per pole of 0.07 Wb The armature
winding consist of 220 turns , each of 0.004 Ώ .calculate the terminal voltage when running at 900
r.p.m if the armature current is 50 A.

•• Solution:
 
No of turns per path ==55
• 
Here,
Resistance per parallel path=0.00455=.22 Ω Z=2202=440
= = =0.055 ohm Φ=0.07Wb
We know, N=900 r.p.m
=V+ P=A=4
or, 462=V+500.055
or, V=459.25 volts
Example 2.28: A d.c shunt generator has an induced voltage an open circuit of 127 V. when the
machine is on load , the terminal voltage 120 V .Find the load current if the field resistance be 15 Ώ
and the armature resistance 0.02 Ώ. Ignore armature
reaction .

•• Solution:
 
We know,
=V+ • 
Here,
= V=127-120=7V =127
== V=120
15 Ώ 120
So, =15 Ω
== = =8A =.02 Ω
= - =350-8=342 A
Example 2.30:Estimate the reduction in speed of a generator with constant excitation on bus-bars to
decrease its load from 500 kW to 250 Kw. The resistance between terminals is 0.015 ohm. The bus
bar voltage is 500 V.

•• Solution:
  here,
For, I1 = ==1000 A P1=5001000 W
Eg1 = V+I1Ra P2=2501000 W
=500+10000.015=515 volts Ra=0.015 ohm
For, I2 = ==500 A V=500 V
Eg2 = V+I2Ra
=500+5000.015=507.5 volts
Now, = =0.9855
% age reduction in speed = (1-0.9855)100%
=1.45%
Example 2.31:A 4-pole,900 r.p.m. d.c. machine has a terminal voltage of 220 V and an induced
voltage of 240 V at rated speed. The armature resistance is 0.2 ohm. Is the machine operating as a
generator or motor ? Find the armature current and the number of armature coils if the air-gap flux
per pole is 10mWb and the armature turns per coil are 8. The armature is wave wound.

••Solution:
 
As, Eg
we know, here,
Eg = V+IaRa Eg=240 V
so, Ia = V=220 V
==100 A A=2
Ra=0.2 ohm
and, Eg = N=900 r.p.m
so, Z= P=4
==800
Number of coils = = =50
Example 2.32:A 4-pole d.c. shunt generator with a shunt field resistance of 100 ohm and armature
resistance of 1 ohm has 378 wave-connected conductors in its armature. The flux per pole is 0.02
Wb . If a load resistance of 10 ohm is connected across the armature terminals and the generator is
driven at 1000 r.p.m., calculate the power absorbed by the load.
•• Solution:
 
we know, here,
Eg = P=4
= =252 V
and, IL = & Ish = Z=378
Ia = IL+Ish N=1000 r.p.m.
= += A=2
as, Eg = V+IaRa Ra=1 ohm
252=V+
so, V= = 227 volts
Power absorbed in load = VIL
=227=5.15 kW
Example 2.33:A compound generator is to supply a load of 250 lamps, each rated at 100 W, 250 V.
The armature, series and shunt windings have resistances of 0.06 ohm, 0.04 ohm and 50 ohm
respectively. Determine the generated e.m.f. when the machine is connected in a)long shunt b)short
shunt. Take drop per brush as 1 V.

• 
Solution:
a)For long shunt, here,
IL == P=250 0.4 Ώ
=100 A V=250 V
Ish = = Rsh=50 ohm 50 Ώ  250

=5 A Ra=0.06 ohm
Ia = IL+Ish Rse=0.04 ohm
=100+5=105 A
Generated e.m.f, Eg = V+Ia(Ra+Rse)+Brush drop
=250+105
=262.5 volts
 Example 2.34:A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50A at 500V and
has armature , series and shunt field resistance of 0.05 Ώ ,0.0 3 Ώ and 250 Ώ respectively
.Calculate the generated e.m.f and armature current .Allow 1V per brush for contact drop.
• 
Solution:
= =2 A
Current through armature winding,
==50+2=52 A
• 
Here, .03 Ω
Voltage drop in series winding, =50 A
=52.03=1.56 V V=500 volts
Armature voltage drop, 250 Ω 500
=250 Ω
=5205=2.6V = .05 Ω
Brush drop =2=2V =.03 Ω
Generated voltage,
=V+++brush drop
=500+2.6+1.56+2
=506.16 V
•   b) For short shunt,
Voltage across shunt, V1 =V+ILRse 0.4 Ώ
=250+100
=254 volts
Ish = ==5.08 A
50 Ώ 250
Ia = IL+Ish
=100+5.08
=105.08 A
Generated e.m.f. , Eg = V1+IaRa+Brush drop
=254+105.08
=262.3 volts
Example 2.35:A short shunt d.c. compound generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. The resistances of
armature, series field and shunt field windings are 0.04 ohm, 0.03 ohm and 60 ohms respectively.
Find the e.m.f generated. Also find the e.m.f. generated if the same machine is connected as long
shunt machine.

• 
Solution:
For short shunt, here,
voltage across shunt, V1 = V+ILRse V=100 V 0.03Ώ
=100+2000.03 IL=200 A
=106 volts Ra=0.04 ohm
Ish = ==1.767 A Rse=0.03 ohm
Ia = IL+Ish=200+1.767=201.767 A Rsh=60 ohm 60 Ώ ​ 100

Generated e.m.f., Eg = V1+IaRa

= 106+201.7670.04
=114.07 volts
•   For long shunt,
Ish1 = =
0.03Ώ 
=1.667 A
Ia1 = IL+Ish1
60Ώ 100
=200+1.667
=201.667 A
Generated e.m.f., Eg1 = V+Ia1(Ra+Rse)
=100+201.667(0.04+0.03)
=114.12 volts
Example 2.36:In a long-shunt compound generator, the terminal voltage is 230 V when generators
delivers 150 A. Determine a)induced e.m.f b)total power generated c)distribution of this power.
Given that the shunt field, series field, diverter and armature resistances are 92 ohm, 0.015 ohm, 0.03
ohm and 0.032 ohm respectively.
• 
a)Solution:
Now, here,
Ish = = V=230 V
=2.5 A Rsh=92 ohm
.015Ώ
Ia = IL+Ish= 150+2.5 IL=150 A .03Ώ

=152.5 A Ra=0.032 ohm

Combined resistance, 92Ώ  230
Rse ==0.01 ohm
Induced voltage, Eg = V+Ia(Ra+Rse)
=230+152.5
=236.4 V
b)Total power in the armature = EgIa
=236.4152.5
=3.61 kW
• 
c)
Power dissipated in the armature =Ra
=
=744 W
Power dissipated in series field and diverter =
=232 W
Power dissipated in shunt field = VIsh =230
=575 W
Power delivered to load = VIL =230
=3.45 kW
Example 4.5: A shunt generator gave the following open –circuit characteristic:

Field 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

current(A)
O.C   54 107 152 185 210 230 246
E.M.F(V)

The armature and field resistance are 0.1 Ώ and 80Ώ respectively . calculate: 

        a)The voltage to which the machine will excite when run as a shunt generator at  the same speed.
        b)The volts lost due to armature reaction when 100a are passing in the armature at a terminal
voltage  of  175 V.
         c)The percentage reduction in speed for the machine to fail to excite on open  circuit.

    
 Solution:
a)The voltage to which the machine
will excite, ON=222 V
b)At 175 V, the shunt field current,
Ish == 2.2 A M T

At 2.2 A, the voltage, OM=195 V C

D A
Voltage lost due to armature reaction
and armature drop =195-175=20 V
Armature drop =IaRa =100 F
Armature reaction =20-10 =10 V
c)From O.C.C. graph,
=
so, == 0.273
Percentage reduction in speed = 0.273
= 27.3% G