Many ongoing processes constantly

change the surface of the globe.

Our Earth is cyclic and restless.
In other words,
---everything on the earth
operates in cycles
---the surface of the earth
is constantly changing
Geology
The science that
considers the
history of the earth,
as recorded in rocks
Chapter 2

Minerals and Rocks

 Where do minerals come from?

 Mineral crystals can form in two main ways:

From stuff
dissolved in liquids From Cooling
(Evaporation & Hot Water)
molten material
 Minerals & Crystals from
Magma & Lava
“Extrusive” Cooling:
Lava cools Fast
(Short Time = Small Crystals)

• Minerals form from hot magma as it cools inside

the crust, or as lava cools on the surface.

• When these liquids cool to a solid, they form

crystals (minerals).

• Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to

freeze into a solid.

“Intrusive” Cooling:
Magma cools slowly
(Long Time = Large Crystals)
2.1 Minerals
A mineral is defined as naturally-occurring, inorganic solid with a
definite chemical composition and an ordered internal structure.
Terminology
Naturally-occurring --- minerals exist naturally. Steel and synthetic
diamonds are created artificially, and therefore, are not
minerals.
Inorganic --minerals are limited to substances formed through inorganic
process, and exclude materials derived from living organisms
which involved organic process.
Solid --- all liquid and gases—even those that are naturally formed such
as petroleum—are not considered minerals.
Definite chemical composition --- the chemical composition of minerals
should express the exact chemical formula with the elements
and compounds in specific ratios.
Ordered internal structure --- the atoms in minerals are organized in
regular, repetitive geometric patterns or crystals structure
2.1 Minerals

Composition of Minerals

1.Silicates are composed primarily of silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons(SiO4-2).

silicates are major rock-forming minerals, including olivine
(Mg,Fe)2 SiO4 and quartz SiO2
2. Oxides consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen O2-.
Common oxide minerals are magnetite Fe3O4 and hematite
Fe2O3.
3. Sulfides consist of metal cations bonded to sulfide S2-.
They are common ore minerals along with oxides since metals
form a high proportion of the minerals.
4. Sulfates consist of metal cations bonded to sulfate SO42- anionic group.
They usually precipitate out of water near Earth’s surface.
2.1 Minerals

Composition of Minerals

5. Halides are composed of halogen ions, such as Cl- Chlorine or F-

fluorine,
which forms rock salt NaCl and fluorite CaF2.
6. Carbonates are characterized by the presence of carbonic ions CO32-
which bonds elements such as calcium or magnesium to form
calcite CaCO3 or dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
7. Native metals consist of a single metal such as copper and gold.
2.1 Minerals

Crystal Structure of Minerals

Crystal structure is dependent on the chemical composition of the minerals.

Six Crystal System

2.1 Minerals

Crystal Structure of Minerals

2.1 Minerals
Physical Properties of Minerals

Cleavage
The tendency of a mineral to break along planes.
Minerals with excellent cleavage will break into smooth, flat,
parallel surface.
2.1 Minerals
Physical Properties of Minerals

Fracture
is the texture and shape of a rock's surface formed .
is the tendency of a mineral to break along curved surfaces without
a definite shape. These minerals do not have planes of weakness
and break irregularly.
2.1 Minerals
Physical Properties of Minerals

Luster
describes appearance of light as it is reflected off its surface.

(Resin)
2.1 Minerals
Physical Properties of Minerals

Color and Streak

The streak of a mineral is the color it displays in finely powdered
form. The streak maybe completely different from the color of the
hand specimen. One of the simplest ways of determining the streak
of a mineral is to rub a specimen across a piece of unglazed
porcelain known as a streak plate.

(Resin)
2.1 Minerals
Physical Properties of Minerals

Color and Streak

2.1 Minerals
Physical Properties of Minerals

Hardness
The hardness of minerals is a measurement of the strength of the
chemical bonds in its structure. It can be measured by scratching it
with another mineral or a reference material with known hardness.
Mohs Scale of Hardness
Index Minerals Scale Common Object
Mohs Scale of Hardness
Diamond 10
Index Minerals Scale Common Object
Corundum 9
Apatite 5 Glass (5.5)
Topaz 8
Fluorite 4 Wire nail (4.5)
Quartz 7
Calcite 3 Copper coin (3.5)
Orthoclase 6 Steel file (6.5)
Gypsum 2 Finger nail (2.5)
Talc 1
2.1 Minerals
Physical Properties of Minerals

Density
Specific gravity is a measurement of the density of a mineral.
It is the weight of a minerals relative to the weight of an equal
volume of water.
Most common minerals have specific gravity of 2.7, while gold has 19.
2.1 Minerals
Common Rock-Forming Element
2.2 Rocks and Rock Cycle
Common Rock-Forming Minerals

Three pigments of soil

Black from organic matter
Red from iron and aluminum
White from silicates and salts
2.2 Rocks and Rock Cycle
Rock
Naturally-occurring, mixture of minerals of solid material.
are found in the lithosphere, which described as rigid, rocky,
outermost part of Earth.
 2.2 Rocks and Rock Cycle where rock break
down into smaller
pieces
Rock Cycle o t he
r ock t
x p ose ents Undergo
e elem transport:
describe as a process by which
brought to surface rocks are formed, modified, • wind
through transported, deposited, melted and reformed. • water
• glaciers
process occurs both on Earth’s surface and underneath • rivers
• oceans

transforms
sediment into
crystallize and
solidify

is exposed to lower
temperature
2.2 Rocks and Rock Cycle

Formation of Igneous Rocks

are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava

the word “igneous” is derived from Latin “igneus” means “fiery” or
on “fire”
Ways igneous rocks form
1. Below the surface
from slowly cooling magma—this results in the formation of crystals
that are visible to naked eye. These type is called intrusive or
plutonic, since they cool underneath.
Rock includes: granite(continent), diorite and syenite
2.2 Rocks and Rock Cycle

Ways igneous rocks form

2. On the surface
from rapid cooling lava--this results in the formation very small
crystals that may not be visible without the use of magnifying lens.
extrusive or volcanic example basalt andesite, and rhyolite.
2.2 Rocks and Rock Cycle

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are products of lithification of particles produced

by the weathering of other pre-existing rocks.
lithification process in which sediments compact under pressure,

Sediments expel fluids, and gradually become solid rock

• older igneous rocks
• metamorphic rocks
• sedimentary rocks
• mineral fragments
• organic material
• minerals that precipitate from solution

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2.2 Rocks and Rock Cycle

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks form when pre-existing or parent rocks (igneous,

sedimentary, even metamorphic) are altered by heat, pressure and the
chemical activity of fluids.
Metamorphism meaning change in form

Metamorphism usually occurs underneath the surface, but not as

deep as the igneous rocks
• foliated metamorphic rocks results in a layered or banded
appearance in the rocks
• non foliated results in rocks like marble and quartzite
• regional metamorphism tectonic process involved produces
mountain chain.

Page 36
2.4 Classification of Rock
Rocks can be classified based on the differences in their texture and
composition

• TEXTURE refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the

mineral
grains and other constituents in rock.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
• CRYSTALLINE when they form from cooled magma or lava
Crystalline texture differs depending on the rate of cooling and
when it took place.
a. Intrusive or plutonic rocks
• slowly-cooled magma resulting to large minerals crystals visible
without the aid of magnifying lens.
• pegmatite texture composed of very large crystals
(larger than 2 to 3 cm).

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2.4 Classification of Rock

Page 37
2.4 Classification of Rock
IGNEOUS ROCKS
b. Extrusive or volcanic rocks
• rapidly-cooled magma usually exhibit aphanitic texture
aphanitic crystals can only be distinguish
with the use of magnifying lens
• glassy appearance of rocks are due
when lava expelled underwater and
rapidly cooled.
• vesicular texture is a result of
gases escaping while volcanic rock
is being formed.

Page 38
2.4 Classification of Rock
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Crystalline
• when they precipitate out of solution
BIOCLASTIC
• when they are formed from the accumulation of organic material
or biologic activity.
• it may even contain
remnants of plants,
corals, shells, or
fossil fragments.

Page 39
2.4 Classification of Rock
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Foliated
• when the dominant agent of metamorphic is pressure

composed of separable layers

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2.4 Classification of Rock
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Crystalline texture

Page 41
2.4 Ore and Minerals
ORE
are naturally-occurring materials that can be probably mined.
It can be:
• mineral
• rock
• metallic
• non metallic
DEPOSIT
is considered a potential ore body if its localized abundance is
greater than its average abundance or distribution on Earth’s crust.

Good Ore
• Not too expensive to mine
• Not too far to a market to transport
• if the additional costs (labor, mine management, and
environment protection) outweigh the potential profit to be made.
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2.4 Ore and Minerals
LOCATING ORE
1. Hydrothermal fluid circulation
most common type of ore mineral deposition process.
forms when groundwater or seawater is heated by magma or when
hot aqueous solutions an expelled from cooling plutonic body.
this produces veins that metallic

DEPOSIT
is considered a potential ore body if its localized abundance is
greater than its average abundance or distribution on Earth’s crust.

Good Ore
• Not too expensive to mine
• Not too far to a market to transport
• if the additional costs (labor, mine management, and
environment protection) outweigh the potential profit to be made.
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