Study of Crude Drugs of

Different Families
1 - Ranunculaceae

1.Aconitum

2.Larkspur

3.Pulsatilla

4.Hydrastis 2
Aconite

Plant Name: Aconite

Scientific Name: Aconitum napellus

Common Name: Zarmora (Pushto); Meetha Zehar (Urdu); Monkshood;
Wolfsbane, Blue Rocket, Friar's Cap.

Family: Ranunculaceae

Part Used: The whole plant; specially root.

Geographical Source: Cultivated plants – Great Britain ; wild plants
growing on the lower mountain slopes – Central & Northern Europe.
Exported chiefly from Germany. (Endemic to Western & Central Europe).

Plant Description: The plant is perennial, with a fleshy, Spindle-shaped
root, pale colored when young, but subsequently acquiring a dark brown
skin. The stem is about 3 feet high, with dark green, glossy leaves, deeply
divided in palmate manner and dark blue flowers in erect clusters.

Description of Part Used: Dried roots are about 4 – 10 cm long, conical in
shape, 2 – 3 cm wide at the crown and tapering to a point at the lower end.
Externally they are dark brown, and bear numerous small circular scars
where the fibrous lateral roots have been removed. In some English drugs
these fibrous roots are present and contain proportion of alkaloid as the main
tap- root. At the widest part of the crown there is one or more scars left by
the removal of ‘daughter’ roots from ‘parent’ roots.
The fracture is short, exposed surface being either white or brown.
3
Aconite

Root

Plant Flower

4
Aconite
Constituents:

Contains 3 closely allied alkaloids:
 aconitine, picraconitine & aconine.

Also very small amount of 5 other alkaloids are present, viz.
 mesaconitine, hypaconitine, neopelline, napelline and nealline.

Other constituents are starch and aconitic acid.

Total amount of alkaloids present is 0.2-1.5 % but up to 2.9 % has also been
recorded.
Uses: Preparations of Aconite and its principal alkaloid aconitine, when applied to
skin/ mouth, produces tingling followed by numbness.

Aconitum napellus is grown in gardens for its attractive spike like inflorescences
and showy blue flowers.

A. napellus contains several poisonous compounds, including enough cardiac
poison that it was used on spears and arrows for hunting and battle in ancient
times.

Used in certain forms of neuralgia and rheumatism. If administered internally,
aconite produces steady fall of temperature, moistening of skin, increased
amount of urine and lowering of sensibility.

Extremely poisonous, (roots possess depressant activity, but after mitigation in
cow’s milk for 2–3 days, they exhibit stimulant activity.)

It is used ethnomedically in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), to treat
coldness & general debility. 5
Larkspur

Plant Name: Larkspur

Scientific Name: Consolida ajacis, Delphinium ajacis

Common Name: Gul e nafarmaan, Zuban dar qafa, Rocket larkspur,
doubtful knight's spur. (syn. Consolida ambigua, Delphinium
ambiguum)

Family: Ranunculaceae

Part Used: Seeds

Geographical Source: Indigenous To Europe and cultivated in all
regions of North America

Plant Description: It is an annual herb with upright & round stems
reaching a height of one foot or more high , pubescent and divided into
alternate, dividing branches.

Description of Part Used: The leaves are alternate, the lower ones with
petioles 1/2 inch long, the upper ones sessile, or nearly so.

Flowers are blue to purple, pink and white followed by glabrous
follicles containing black, flattened seeds with acute edges and pitted
surfaces. The seeds are poisonous having an acrid and bitter taste
without any odor. 6
Larkspur

7
Larkspur
Constituents:
 The chief constituents of seeds are from 20 – 25 % of alkaloidal matter, which
consists chiefly of the bitter, crystalline alkaloid – Delphinine (an irritant
poison),
 a second crystalline alkaloid named Delphisine, and
 the amorphous alkaloid Delphinoidine.
Uses:
 Tincture of seed acts as a parasiticide and insecticide, being used to destroy lice
in the hair. The tincture, given in 10-drop doses, gradually increased, is also
employed in spasmodic asthma.
 The expressed juice of the leaves is considered good as an application to
bleeding piles. The juice of the flowers and an infusion of the whole plant was
also prescribed against colic.
 The name Delphinium, from Delphin (a dolphin), was given to this genus
because the buds were held to resemble a dolphin. Shakespeare mentions the
plant under the name of Lark's Heel.
 The name Consolida refers to the plant's power of consolidating wounds.

8
Pulsatilla

Plant Name: Pulsatilla

Scientific Name: Anemone Pulsatilla

Common Name: Pasque Flower, Wind Flower, Meadow Anemone,
Passe Flower, Easter Flower, Shaqaiq nomani.

Family: Ranunculaceae

Part Used: Whole herb

Geographical Source: It grows wild in the dry soils of almost every
Central and Northern country of Europe, but in England is rather a
local plant.

Plant Description: The whole plant, especially the bases of the foot-
stalks, is covered with silky hairs. It is odorless, but possesses at first a
very acrid taste, which is less conspicuous in the dried herb and
gradually diminishes on keeping.

Description of Part Used: It has a thick and somewhat woody root-
stock, from which arises a rosette of finely-divided, stalked leaves
which are covered with silky hairs, especially when young. The
flowers, which are about 1½ inches across, are born singly on stalks 5
– 8 inches in height.

9
Pulsatilla

10
Hydrastis

Plant Name: Hydrastis

Scientific Name: Hydrastis canadensis

Common Name: Golden seal, orange root.

Family: Ranunculaceae

Part Used: Rhizome

Geographical Source: Widely distributed in woods in Canada and Eastern
U.S.

Plant Description: Small herbacious plant with perennial rhizome which is
collected in autumn and dried. The stem is purplish and hairy above ground
and yellow below ground where it connects to the yellow rhizome.

Description of Part Used: Rhizome grows either horizontally or in an
oblique direction in ground; it is convoluted and sub – cylindrical about 1 – 6
cm long & 3 – 10 mm thick. The surface is yellowish brown markedly rough,
wiry roots, arising from all parts of the rhizome. Roughness is also due to
numerous stem bases and scale leaves on the upper surface.

Fracture is short & resinous. Fractured surface fluorescence brilliant yellow in
UV light.


Drug has faint, characteristic odour and a bitter taste. It gives yellow colour to
saliva upon chewing.
12
Hydrastis

Plant

Root Flower

13
Hydrastis
Constituents:

Principal constituents are alkaloids
 Hydrastin 1.5 – 3.5 %,
 berberin about 2.5 % and
 canadine.

In addition resin, starch and a trace of volatile oil is present.

Uses:

Rhizome is a bitter tonic.

It is used in chronic gastrointestinal catarrh and nasal inflammation.

Also used as stomachic and nervine stimulant.

In menorrhagia & inflammation of uterine mucus membrane.

Employed locally in various kinds of ulceration and hemorrhage.

14
2 - Papaveraceae

1. Papaver somniferum,

2. Sanguinaria canadensis

15
Opium

Plant Name: Opium

Scientific Name: Papaver somniferum

Common Name: Dodday; Afeem, Afeun, Post, Khashkhaas, Koknar.

Family: Papaveraceae

Part Used: Dried latex from the unripe capsules of opium poppy

Geographical Source: Known to Greeks and Romans from ancient times.
Collected principally in Macedonia, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran,
India and Pakistan.

Plant Description: Opium poppy is an upright herb growing to a height of
50 -150 cm.

Description of Part Used: Opium collected from the fields may have
different shapes (rounded, conical, flattened or irregular) and may vary in
weight from 50 g to several Kg. It may or may not be covered with poppy
leaves. It is referred to as ‘natural’ opium and does not come into regular
commerce. In factories natural opium is mixed and milled and then made up
into cakes of some definite shape containing fairly uniform contents of
morphine. This is known as ‘manipulated’ opium. The contents are from 10
– 13 % of moisture and from 9 – 10.5 % of morphine. 16
Opium
Collection:
Superficial incisions are made into the wall while the capsules are still green or
are showing yellow tint. The incision cuts across lactiferous vessels, and the
latex from a large area of capsules exudes in small drops along the edges of the
incisions and partially dries in air. Incisions are made by a sharp blade at a time
carefully chosen so that rain, wind, and dew cannot spoil the exudation of white,
milky latex, usually in afternoon and exuded latex is scrapped off with a knife
early on the next morning.
In Indian Subcontinent, Afghanistan, Central Asia and Iran, the special tool used
to make the incisions is called "nishtar" (lancet) and carries three or four blades
three millimeters apart, which are scored upward along the pod. Incisions are
made 3 – 4 times at intervals of 2 – 3 days. One acre harvested in this way can
produce 3 – 5 kilograms of raw opium.
Exude is collected in different ways in different areas. In Yugoslavia &
Macedonia the exude is collected in conical tins lined with poppy leaves,
holding about 750 g of moist opium. These masses are soft and conical in form
covered with poppy leaves when turned out.
In factory these are dried in warm air. Opium thus produced was formerly
known as ‘soft shipping opium’. It may be milled and made in the form of
cakes of varying size and weight which differ from country to country. 17
Opium

Raw opium latex is Mature seed pod of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)
dripping from the with milky latex sap dripping from a recent cut
incised seed capsule.

Opium poppy seed

capsules

18
Opium
Constituents:

25 different alkaloids which occur in combination with meconic acid and
sulphuric acid.

Other constituents are small quantities of mucilage, sugar, wax, caoutchouc
and salts of Ca and Mg.

Important alkaloids:
 Morphine (10 – 20 %);
 Codeine (methyl morphine) (0.3 – 4.0 %);
 Narcotine (2.0 – 8.0 %);
 Thebaine (0.2 – 0.5 %).
 Narceine, papaverine and the remaining alkaloids are present in very small quantities
constituting together rather more than 1% of the drug.
Uses:

Hypnotic, analgesic, sedative in cough and dyspnoea etc,

Opium tea is consumed for its narcotic, analgesic, and anti-diarrheal, effects.

All important alkaloids have narcotic action which decreases in following
order:
 Morphine > papaverine > codeine > narcotine > thebaine.

Poppy seeds are flavorsome topping for breads and cakes. One gram of poppy
seeds contains up to 33 micrograms of morphine and 14 micrograms of
codeine 19
Sanguinaria

Plant Name: Sanguinaria

Scientific Name: Sanguinaria canadensis

Common Name: Blood root, rhizoma sanguinaria.

Family: Papaveraceae

Part Used: Rhizome

Geographical Source: Native to U.S

Plant Description: Small, perennial; low growing herb (about 15 cm
high).

Description of Part Used: It is collected in autumn and dried. The
rhizome occurs in sub – cylindrical, straight or slightly curved pieces, about
3 – 10 cm long and 5 – 15 mm thick. Short lateral branches occur on some
pieces. Roots, when present, are small, brittle and wiry. Outer surface of
rhizome is dark earthy grey to dark reddish brown and lower surface bears
numerous small root scars.

Transversely cut surface may be white and starchy with numerous small red
points due to cutting of lactiferous vessels.

The fracture is short, odor is little and taste is pungent.

20
Sanguinaria

Plant with roots Plant

Flower Rhizome

21
Sanguinaria
Constituents:

Contains 5 alkaloids, a red resin and abundant starch.

The alkaloids are
 sanguinarin which is crystalline and colorless, but yields deep red crystalline salts;
 chelerythrine which is colorless and yields bright yellow salts;
 protopine;
 β & γ chelidonine, which are colorless.

Uses:

In full dose it is heart depressant and produces nausea and vomiting.

In small doses it increases appetite and improves digestion.

Also used in bronchitis and asthma.

Powdered rhizome is powerful irritant of respiratory passages.

It is used in mouthwash and toothpaste as a plaque inhibitor.

22
3 - Leguminosae
1. Acacia,

2. Glycyrrhiza,

3. Senna,

4. Cassia,

5. Tamarind

23
Acacia

Plant Name: Acacia

Scientific Name: Acacia senegal

Common Name: Gum Arabic, acacia gummi, Kordofan gum, Drakht
samag arabi.

Family: Leguminosae

Part Used: Dried exudation from the stem.

Geographical Source: It is native to semi-desert regions of Sub-Saharan
Africa, as well as Oman, Pakistan, and north western India. Growing freely
in Western and Eastern Africa (upper Nile).

Plant Description: Small tree attaining height of 5 – 12 m with a trunk up
to 30cm in diameter.

Description of Part Used: Kordofan gum occurs in rounded or ovoid tears
about 0.5 – 4.0 or sometimes as much as 6.0 cm in diameter. Often white but
sometimes show a yellowish tinge, and are opaque due to the presence of
numerous small fissures in the outer part of the tears.
Drug is having no odor and has a pleasant, mucilaginous taste. High qualities
are white or have a yellowish tinge, whereas inferior grades have decided
yellow or reddish or brownish red color and they contain traces of tannins.

24
Acacia

Acacia Tree
gum-exudation,
hardened by
air, flowing
naturally or
obtained by the
incision of the
stems and
branches of
Acacia Senegal

Different
commercial
forms of Acacia
senegal

25
Acacia
Constituents:

Consists almost entirely of a glycosidal acid of high molecular weight,
which has been termed Arabic acid combine with K, Mg & Ca.

Gum acacia also contains diastase and an oxidase enzyme.

Acacia gum's mixture of saccharides and glycoproteins gives it the
properties of a glue and binder which is edible by humans.
Uses:

Medicinally as demulcent and as a means of suspending oils, resins etc in
aqueous fluids and as an emulsifying agent.

It is used topically for healing wounds and has been shown to inhibit the
growth of periodontic bacteria and the early deposition of plaque.

New foliage is very useful as fodder.

Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics also use the gum as a binder, emulsifying
agent and a suspending or viscosity increasing agent.

It is used as a binder for watercolor painting as it dissolves easily in water.

26
Glycyrrhiza

Plant Name: Glycyrrhiza, Liquorice root, Licorice.

Scientific Name: Glycyrrhiza glabra

Common Name: Radix glycyrrhizae, mulethi, Spanish liquorice.

Family: Leguminosae

Part Used: Root.

Geographical Source: Cultivated in England, Sicily and Spain. Also
grown in Anatolia (Asia minor).

Plant Description: It is a perennial herb, growing to 1 m in height, with
pinnate leaves about 7–15 cm long, with 9–17 leaflets.

Description of Part Used: Unpeeled Spanish liquorice consists chiefly of
stolon with a few pieces of root. Pieces are un-branched and may be as long
as 1 m and are from 1 – 2 cm in diameter. The drug is cut into lengths of
about 20 cm and bound in bundles with wires.
 The fracture is fibrous in bark and splintery in the wood.
 The odor is faint and characteristic.
 Taste is sweet, without any marked bitterness or acidity.
 Powdered liquorice is usually made from the peeled root, which gives a product
of superior color and taste.

27
Glycyrrhiza
Plant Fruit

Root
28
Glycyrrhiza
Constituents:

Sweet glycyrrhizin is present from 5 – 7 %.

K and Ca salts of glycyrrhizinic acid

Drug also contains 1.4% glucose, 2.5% sucrose, 29% starch, a pungent bitter
principle, proteins, 1% asparagin , fats and resins.
Uses:

It has demulcent effect.

It reduces irritation of the throat and has an expectorant action.

Liquid extract is used to mask the taste of bitter medicines.

For treatment of gastric and duodenal ulcer.

Anti allergic, anti inflammatory, spasmolytic, mild laxative and anti
depressive.

Glycyrrhiza is also effective in helping to reduce fevers (glycyrretinic acid
has an effect like aspirin)

Much liquorice production goes toward flavouring, sweetening and
conditioning tobacco products.

29
Senna

Plant Name: Senna.

Scientific Name: Cassia angustifolia

Common Name: Indian senna leaves; folia sennae indicae, Senna indica,
Tinnevelly senna, Cassia senna
Alexandrian Senna- (Cassia acutifolia), Delite, Khartoum Senna.
Amaltas (Cassia fistula ).

Family: Leguminosae

Part Used: Pods, Stems and Leaflets.

Geographical Source: Indigenous to Southern Arabia, but is cultivated
largely in Southern India, specially in district of Tinnevelly. Here plant
produces the larger leaves than Arabian wild plants.

Plant Description: Small shrub from 1 – 1.5 m in height, cultivated in
irrigated land. Leaves are collected, and dried, sorted and packed in large
bales using hydraulic pressure.

Description of Part Used: Leaves resemble Alexandarian senna rather
closely, but are generally of a yellowish green rather than greyish green
color, a difference more noticeable in bulk than single leaf.
They attain larger size than the Alexandarian, being about 2.5 – 6 cm long
and 7 – 8 mm wide. Also there is slight but detectable difference in the odor
of two varieties.
30
Senna

Leaves Stem & Pods

31
Senna
Constituents:
 Chief constituents are glycosides (derivatives of anthraquinone).
 Two of these are named Sennoside – A & Sennoside – B
 A third active glycoside is probably derived from the anthranol of Aloe-
emodin (0.2 – 0.4%) and exerts a powerful synergistic effect upon the
activity of 2 sennosides.
 Other constituents are Kaempferol, myricyl alcohol, and a phytosterolin
(phytosterol glycoside), mucilage and Ca oxalate.

Uses:
 Senna stimulates the muscular coat of the intestine and produces
purgation, which is not followed by constipation. Therefore it is most
useful of purgatives specially in cases of habitual constipation.
 Used in compounds for treating distention of stomach, vomiting and
hiccups.
 Leaves are made into a paste, and applied to various skin diseases.

32
Tamarind

Plant Name: Tamarind.

Scientific Name: Tamarindus indica

Common Name: Tamar e Hindi‫مر هندی‬SSS‫ت‬, Imli.

Family: Leguminosae/ Fabaceae

Part Used: Fruit.

Geographical Source: Indigenous to tropical Africa (particularly in
Sudan), cultivated throughout India and west Indies.

Plant Description: Large tree.

Description of Part Used: West Indian tamarinds occur as reddish brown,
moist sugary mass, in which vascular strands and seeds are embedded. Seeds
are enclosed in leathery envelope formed from the endocarp. Seeds are
reddish brown, obscurely quadrangular, about 15 x 12 mm and 4 – 6 mm
thick. The pulp has an agreeable odor and a sweet acidulous taste. The cakes
of Indian tamarinds have hardly any odor but rather strongly acid taste.

33
Tamarind

Tamarind Tree

Tamarind tree fruit

(500 g pack)

Tamarind pods,
which contain a
sour, fruity pulp.
34
Tamarind
Constituents:
Tamarind pulp, though varying in composition, contains
 about 10% of free tartaric acid, about 8% of acid K tartarate and from 25 – 40
% of invert sugar.
 Total acidity varies from 11 – 16%.
 West Indian tamarinds contain much added sugar and proportionately less acid.

Uses:
 Pleasant acid refrigerant.
 Article of diet.
 Excess consumption has been noted as a traditional laxative.
 It is used in desserts as a jam, blended into juices or sweetened drinks and
snacks.
 The hard green pulp of a young fruit is considered by many to be too sour and
acidic, and is often used as a component of spicy dishes, as a pickling agent.

35
4 - Umbelliferae
1. Fennel,

2. Carum,

3. Coriander,

4. Conium,

5. Asafoetida

36
Fennel

Plant Name: Fennel fruits, Fructus Foeniculi.

Scientific Name: Foeniculum vulgare

Common Name: Saunf, Badiyan, Bari saunf, Raziana, Kaga.

Family: Umbelliferae

Part Used: Dried ripe fruit

Geographical Source: Indigenous to shores of the Mediterranean. Several
varieties of plant are cultivated in Saxony, Russia, Galicia, Romania etc.
Also cultivated in India, Pakistan, Japan and other countries.

Plant Description: Perennial aromatic herbaceous plant. The flowers are
produced in terminal compound umbels having 20–50 tiny yellow flowers
on short pedicels.

Description of Part Used: Fruits are oval – oblong, about 6 – 10 mm long
& 3 – 4 mm wide and are greenish brown to yellowish brown.
They have an agreeable and aromatic odour and taste somewhat resembling
that of anise.

37
Fennel

Fennel Plant

Fennel Seeds

38
Fennel
Constituents:
 Best varieties of fennel yield 4 – 5% of volatile oil, the principal constituents of which
are anethol (50 – 60%) and fenchone (18 – 20%).
 The fruit also contains about 20% of proteins and
 12 – 18% of fixed oil.

Uses:
 Fennel is used as an agreeable aromatic and carminative.
 Also used as stomachic, antispasmodic, anti inflammatory and diuretic.
 Syrup prepared from fennel juice was formerly given for chronic coughs.
 It is one of the plants which is said to be disliked by fleas, and powdered fennel has the
effect of driving away fleas from kennels and stables.
 There are historical anecdotes that fennel is a galactagogue. This use, although not
supported by direct evidence, is sometimes justified by the fact that fennel is a source of
phytoestrogens, which promote growth of breast tissue.
 As a condiment.
 It is also used as a flavouring in some natural toothpastes.

39
Caraway

Plant Name: Caraway fruits, Fructus Carui.

Scientific Name: Carum carvi.

Common Name: Zeera Siyah, Karvi, Kala zeera, Qamoon e Aswad,
Qamoon e Armani.

Family: Umbelliferae

Part Used: Dried ripe fruit (but incorrectly called ‘caraway seeds’)

Geographical Source: Distributed over central and northern Europe and
found in Britain, but possibly naturalized. Cultivated principally in Holland,
Sweden, Norway, Russia, Germany and Morocco.

Plant Description: Erect biennial herb.

Description of Part Used: Commercial caraway is chiefly composed of
separated mericarps, which are about 4 – 7 mm long and 1 mm broad and
thick. They are curved and taper towards base and apex to which half of the
stylopod is attached. The outer surface is brown & the five primary ridges
are yellowish.

The odor and taste of the crushed fruit is agreeable and aromatic.

40
Caraway

Caraway Plant

Caraway fruit
on plant

Caraway Fruit

41
Caraway

Constituents:
 Caraways yield 3.5 – 7.0% of volatile oil on distillation.
 The chief constituent of which is carvone (50 – 60%) and limonine (20 – 30%).
 They also contain proteins (about 20%) and fixed oil in the endosperm.


Uses:
 Caraways, or the volatile oil obtained from them are extensively used as an aromatic
carminative.
 Caraway oil is also used as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions, and perfumes.
 They are used as a spice in breads.
 Caraway is also used in desserts, liquors, curry and other foods.
 Caraway seeds and oil have properties associated with improving gastric problems,
flatulence, and indigestion.    
 Caraway is safe and effective for relief of colic in young children. (Bruise an ounce of
seed and let sit in cold water for about 6 hours.  Sweeten with sugar or honey, if desired,
and give 1-2 teaspoons up to 4 times per day).

42
Coriander

Plant Name: Coriander

Scientific Name: Coriandrum sativum

Common Name: Dhannia, Kashneez, Chinese parsley or Mexican
parsley in North America.

Family: Umbelliferae

Part Used: Fruit

Geographical Source: Naturalized throughout temperate Europe.
Cultivated principally in Russia, Thuringia, Moravia, Hungary, Malta,
Northern Africa and India.

Plant Description: Erect herbaceous annual plant which grows to the
height of 45 to 60 cm.

Description of Part Used: The fruits occur as entirely cremocarps,
which are sub spherical, about 3 to 5 mm in diameter and brownish in
colour. It is crowned by five small sepals and a stylopod. Each
mericarp has 5 prominent primary ridges. The fruit has 2 vittae on the
commissural surface of each mericarp.
The odor of the bruised fruit is aromatic and the taste is spicy.

43
Coriander

1-Coriander Plant, 2- Coriander dry seed,

3- Powdered Coriander

Coriander Plant
3

44
Coriander
Constituents: Fruits of good quality yield from 0.8 – 1.0% of volatile
oil, and the chief constituent is 90% of the alcohol – linalol.

Uses:

All parts of the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves and the dried
seeds are the most commonly used in cooking.

The fruit and the oil distilled from it are used as aromatic carminatives
and for general digestive aid.

Coriander has been used as a folk medicine for the relief of anxiety
and insomnia in Iranian folk medicine. Experiments in mice support
its use as an anxiolytic.

Coriander seeds are also used in traditional Indian medicine as a
diuretic by boiling equal amounts of coriander seeds and cumin seeds,
then cooling and consuming the resulting liquid.

Coriander is primarily used in modern medicine as a flavoring agent
in medicines and as a stomach soothing addition to more irritating
compounds.  

For upset stomach and flatulence relief.

45
Hemlock

Plant Name: Hemlock fructus, Fructus Conii

Scientific Name: Conium maculatum

Common Name: Shokran kabeer, Kardamna, Fructus Conii, Poison
hemlock (English) and Devil's Porridge (Irish).

Family: Umbelliferae

Part Used: Full grown fruit before ripening.

Geographical Source: Widely dispersed throughout temperate Europe
and generally distributed over Great Britain.

Plant Description: Biennial plant

Description of Part Used: The cremocarp is grayish green, broadly
ovoid and slightly laterally compressed. Mericarps are usually
separate each of which has five paler and prominent primary ridges.
The outer surface is glabrous.

46
Hemlock
Conium Conium
maculatum Plant maculatum Plant

Conium
maculatum fruit

47
Hemlock
Constituents: Principal constituents of hemlock are poisonous alkaloids. If collected at
proper time and dried, they may contain 1.7 – 2.8% alkaloids. Alkaloid is present at its
maximum when fruits are full grown but not full ripen. During the ripening the
proportion of alkaloid rapidly diminishes.

Conium contains the pyridine alkaloids coniine, N-methylconiine, conhydrine,
pseudoconhydrine and γ-coniceine, which is the precursor of the other hemlock
alkaloids.

The most important and toxic of these is coniine, which is a neurotoxin and disrupts
the workings of the central nervous system. It produces Ascending paralysis, ending in
death by failure of respiration.
Uses: It has been used as sedative and antispasmodic.

Chorea & epilepsy.

It is useful in arthritis and has been used as sedative.

It is also believed that inhalation of hemlock relieves cough in bronchitis,
whooping cough and other respiratory problems.

It is usually taken in moderate because medicinal properties are less in
hemlock and an overdose can lead to paralysis and depression.

In ancient Greece, hemlock was used to poison destined prisoners. The most
famous victim of hemlock poisoning is the philosopher Socrates.
48
Asafetida

Plant Name: Asafetida

Scientific Name: Ferula foetida; Ferula rubricaulis.

Common Name: Asafoetida, Stinking gum, Devil’s dung, giant
fennel, Heeng.

Family: Umbelliferae

Part Used: The resin-like gum which comes from the dried sap
extracted from the stem and roots which is greyish-white when fresh
but dries to a dark amber color.

Geographical Source: East Persia and Afghanistan.

Plant Description: Large herbaceous perennial plant which grows to
2m tall and develops massive root.

Description of Part Used: It occurs in 3 forms i.e. paste, tear & mass.
Paste and tears are purer forms but the bulk of the drug is mass.
Probably the red variety is derived from F. foetida and the white from
F. rubricaulis.

The drug has an intense, penetrating alliaceous odour and a bitter,
acrid, alliaceous taste.
49
Asafetida
Asafetida flowering Plant Asafetida umbel

Asafetida

50
Asafetida
Constituents:
 Good samples yield from 10 – 17% of volatile oil, from 40 – 64% of resin,
about 25% of gum.
 The amount of mineral contents in resin may rise up to 60% or even more.
 50% of the resin consists of resene, asaresene – A and volatile oil.
 Also contains 1.3% of free ferulic acid and 16% of very unstable ester of ferulic
acid with asaresinol.

Uses: It is a powerful nervine stimulant and used in nervous disorders of hysteria.

 Also used as deflatulant and to relieve constipation.
 This spice is used as a digestive aid, in food as a condiment and in pickles. Can
be used instead of onions or garlic.
 Asafoetida has a broad range of uses in traditional medicine as an antimicrobial,
with well documented uses for treating chronic bronchitis and whooping cough.
 Repelling spirits - In Jamaica, it is traditionally applied to a baby's anterior
fontanel to prevent spirits from entering the baby through the fontanel
 A folk tradition remedy for children's colds: it is mixed into a pungent smelling
paste and hung in a bag around the suffering child's neck.

51
5 - Apocynaceae
Rauwolfia,
1.

Catharanthus
2.

52
Rauwolfia

Plant Name: Rauwolfia

Scientific Name: Rauvolfia serpentina

Common Name: Snake Root, Serpentine Root, Indian Snake Root,
Pagal booti, Chota chaand, choti chandan.

Family: Apocynaceae

Part Used: Dried roots

Geographical Source: Native plant of India, Burma , Sri Lanka,
Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines. Occurs in hot moist regions.

Plant Description: It is an evergreen, perennial, glabrous and erect
under shrub grows up to a height of 1m and has cylindrical stems.

Description of Part Used: The majority of pieces of the drug are 8 –
15 cm long and 0.5 – 1.0 cm thick. They are sub cylindrical and
tapering, somewhat twisted and rarely branched. Pieces of the
rhizome are less uniform in diameter. Rootlets are few and broken off
short having a diameter of 0.5 – 1.0 mm.

The fracture is short. Drug is odourless and has a bitter taste.

53
Rauwolfia
Rauwolfia plant

Rauwolfia roots

54
Rauwolfia

Constituents:
 Contains resinous matter and about 1.2 – 1.4% of alkaloids.
 Small amounts of phytosterol, fatty acids, unsaturated alcohols, dextrose,
sucrose, fumaric acid & a fluorescent substance.
 Most important alkaloids are reserpine and rescinnamine.
 The alkaloids first isolated were classed in two groups;
ajmaline (ajmaline, ajmalinine, ajmalicine & 2 others)
serpentine (serpentine & serpentinine)


Uses:
 It helps to reduce blood pressure, depresses activity of central nervous
system and acts as a sedative and hypnotic (due to reserpine).
 Refined snakeroot has been used extensively in recent years to treat
hypertension.
 It was reported that Mahatma Gandhi took it as a tranquilizer during his
lifetime.
 It is used as an antidote to the bites of poisonous snakes.

55
Catharanthus

Plant Name: Catharanthus, Vinca.

Scientific Name: Catharanthus roseus.

Common Name: Vinca rosea, Ammocallis rosea, Cape Periwinkle,
Rose Periwinkle, Rosy Periwinkle, and Old-maid.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Part Used: Whole dried plant.

Geographical Source: native to Madagaskar but now it is
cosmopolitan in the tropics and is widely cultivated as ornamental

Plant Description: Evergreen herbaceous plant growing to 1 m tall.
The leaves are oval to oblong, 2.5 – 9 cm long and 1 – 3.5 cm broad,
glossy green, with a pale midrib and a short petiole, arranged in
opposite pairs. The flowers are violet or white to dark pink with a
darker red centre.

Description of Part Used: The whole plant is used as a drug.

56
Catharanthus

Catharanthus roseus

57
Catharanthus
Constituents:
 More than 55 different alkaloids have been isolated from the plant. They are
genearally indole & dihydroindole derivatives.
 Some of them are Ajmalicine, tetrahydroalstonine, serpentine & lochnerine.
 Alkaloids with antineoplastic activity and available commercially are
Vinblastine & Vincristine.
 As the active alkaloids exist in the crude drug in relatively small amount,
enormous quantities are required for commercial production (500 Kg
catharanthus are utilized to produce 1.0 g of vincristine).

Uses:
 Extracts from it have been used to treat numerous diseases, including diabetes
& malaria.
 Also used as immunosuppressive and nootropic drug.
 The substances vinblastine and vincristine extracted from the plant are used in
the treatment of leukemia.

58
6 - Asclepiadaceae
1. Gymnema sylvestre,

2. Calotropis gigantean

59
xx

Plant Name:

Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Family:

Part Used:

Geographical Source:


Plant Description:


Description of Part Used:

60
xx

61
xx
Constituents:

Uses:
 a

62
xx

Plant Name:

Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Family:

Part Used:

Geographical Source:


Plant Description:


Description of Part Used:

63
xx

64
xx
Constituents:

Uses:
 a

65
7 - Compositae
Artemisia,
1.

Silybum marianum,
2.

Echinaceae,
3.

Arctium lappa
4.

66
xx

Plant Name:

Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Family:

Part Used:

Geographical Source:


Plant Description:


Description of Part Used:

67
xx

68
xx
Constituents:

Uses:
 a

69
xx

Plant Name:

Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Family:

Part Used:

Geographical Source:


Plant Description:


Description of Part Used:

70
xx

71
xx
Constituents:

Uses:
 a

72
xx

Plant Name:

Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Family:

Part Used:

Geographical Source:


Plant Description:


Description of Part Used:

73
xx

74
xx
Constituents:

Uses:
 a

75
xx

Plant Name:

Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Family:

Part Used:

Geographical Source:


Plant Description:


Description of Part Used:

76
xx

77
xx
Constituents:

Uses:
 a

78
8 - Solanaceae
Belladonna,
1.

Hyoscyamus,
2.

Stramonium,
3.

Capsicum
4.

79
Belladonna

Plant Name: Belladonna

Scientific Name: Atropa belladonna

Common Name: Angoor shifa, Shah beezak, Yabraj, Belladonna,
Deadly night shade, Devil’s berries and Death cherries.

Family: Solanaceae

Part Used: Leaves (fresh or dried), Flowering tops, Roots.

Geographical Source: Indigenous to central and southern Europe and
southern counties of England. Cultivated in England, Europe and
United States.

Plant Description: Perennial herb, growing to 2 m in height.

Description of Part Used: Drug consists of the flattened or curled &
twisted and often much broken leafy branches bearing flowers and
young fruits.

Leaves are ovate to broadly ovate, about 6 – 10 cm having dull
yellowish green colour.

Flowers are 2.5 – 3.5 cm long and 1.0 – 1.4 cm wide.

Ripe fruits are very juicy, sub spherical berries. Juice does not contain
any alkaloid and has sweet pleasant taste. Fruit without seed is non
poisonous.
80
Belladonna

81
Belladonna
Constituents:
 Chief constituent is alkaloid hyoscyamine.
 Small amount of hyoscine (6 – 7% of total alkaloid) is also present.
 Drug consisting of older leaves may contain atropine to the extent of 5 – 40 %
of the total alkaloid.
 The alkaloids are present in the whole plant.

Uses:
 Acts as local anaesthetic and anodyne and is used externally to relieve pain.
 Internally it is given as a sedative to the respiratory nerves, to relieve spasmodic
cough and in numerous other conditions.
 The common name belladonna originates from its historic use by women - Bella
Donna is Italian word for beautiful lady. Drops prepared from the belladonna
plant were used to dilate women's pupils, an effect considered attractive. Today
it is known that the atropine in belladonna acts as an anti-muscarinic, blocking
receptors in the muscles of the eye that constrict pupil size.

82
Henbane

Plant Name: Henbane, Folia Hyoscyami, Hyoscyamus

Scientific Name: Hyoscyamus niger

Common Name: Bhang dana, Khurasani ijwain, Ijwain e khurasani,
Stinking nightshade.

Family: Solanaceae

Part Used: Dried leaves and flowering tops.

Geographical Source: Occurs throughout Europe, Southern England,
Persia and India. It is cultivated in south eastern England, Thuringia,
Germany, Russia and Hungary.

Plant Description: Erect annual or biennial herb with coarse, hairy
stems; leaves are alternate, simple, toothed; flowers are axillary,
tubular, greenish yellow or yellowish with purple veins; fruit is a
capsule.

Description of Part Used: Commercial henbane consists of entangled
leaves or leaves and flowering tops including stem, which does not
exceed about 5 mm in diameter in dried condition. The drug has a pale
grayish green color and is clammy and resinous to the touch. 83
Henbane
Hyoscyamus niger

Hyoscyamus niger seeds

84
Henbane
Constituents:
 Henbane contains hyoscyamine and traces of scopolamine (hyoscine);
atropine has been reported, but its presence is doubtful.
 The total alkaloid present is about 0.045 – 0.14% and occasionally up to 0.2 %.
 Annual henbane contains only about 0.03% of total alkaloid.
 Henbane seeds contain about 0.05 % of total alkaloid, consisting of
hyoscyamine and scopolamine; which are present in the testa only.
 In addition the seed contains about 20% of fixed oil.

Uses:
 Henbane is used as a cerebral and spinal sedative; it does not give rise to the
excitation caused by belladonna and is therefore used in insomnia when opium
cannot be given.
 It also relieves the griping caused by drastic purgatives.
 The seeds have been used as a source of the alkaloid hyoscine.
 Thrown upon hot coals they give off a vapor which is a domestic remedy for
toothache, being allowed to enter the mouth for this purpose.
 The leaves scattered about a house will drive away mice.

85
Datura

Plant Name: Datura, Thorn apple, Semina Stramonii

Scientific Name: Datura stramonium

Common Name: Tatoora, Datoora sufaid, Datoora sada, Thorn apple

Family: Solanaceae

Part Used: Ripe seeds

Geographical Source: They come chiefly from southern England &
central Europe.

Plant Description: It is an erect annual herb growing into a bush up to
7 ft. high. It has a pungent smell that becomes stronger if any part is
crushed or even touched. The egg-shaped seed capsule is walnut-sized
and either covered with spines or bald. At maturity it splits into four
chambers, each with dozens of small black seeds.

Description of Part Used: The seeds are flattened and reniform in
outline. The testa is nearly black or dull dark brown and is marked by
indefinite shallow reticulate depressions about 0.3 mm wide and the
whole surface is in addition finely pitted.
86
Datura

Datura stramonium

87
Datura
Constituents:
 Consists of tropane alkaloids viz. hyoscyamine with traces of scopolamine
(hyoscine) and possibly of atropine.
 Other constituents are proteins and about 15 to 30 % of fixed oil containing
glycerides of daturic and other acids.

Uses:
 All parts of Datura plants contain dangerous levels of poison and may be fatal if
ingested by humans or animals, including livestock and pets.
 Datura is used to treat asthma, and gastrointestinal problems.
 It acts as a sedative in large doses.
 Eating the seeds rapidly gets the alkaloids to the nervous system, and also
increases the risk of lethal overdose.
 The leaves can be dried and smoked to relax the bronchiole muscles of the
throat, and are also used to line beds of those with insomnia.

88
Capsicum

Plant Name: Fructus Capsisi, Capsicum, Cayenne pepper, Chillies

Scientific Name: Capsicum minimum, Capsicum annuum

Common Name: Sabz mirch, Filfil e sabz, Surkh mirch, Filfil e
ahmar, Laal mirch, Shimla mirch

Family: Solanaceae

Part Used: Fruit

Geographical Source: Cultivated in many parts of the world such as
southern India and South America, but more especially in Africa. The
drug is exported chiefly from Zanzibar, Nyasaland and Sierra Leone.

Plant Description: It is a perennial shrub, but is usually grown as an
annual.

Description of Part Used: The fruit of Capsicum minimum is a
narrowly ovoid or ovoid-conical pod about 12 – 20 mm long and 4 –7
mm wide. The pericarp is glabrous, somewhat shrunken, thin, more or
less translucent and leathery and orange-red in color.

Capsicum fruits have a characteristic but not powerful odor, and an
extremely fiery, pungent taste.
89
Capsicum
Varieties:
Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone : these are regarded as the most
pungent of all. The pod is rather slender, bright in
color, with the stalk only occasionally attached.


Nyasaland closely resemble Sierra Leone, but are Nyasaland
rather brighter and more free from stalk.


Zanzibar are usually duller in color, more stalky,
and the pod rather shorter and broader. The calyx Zanzibar
and pedicel are usually present in small amount,
forming about 1.3 to 2.9 % of the drug.


Bombay capsicums: the fruits of C. annuum are
nearly globular, ovoid or oblong. They are larger
than the fruits of C. minimum, being about 5 – 12
cm. long and 2 – 4 cm. wide, and have a less Bombay
pungent taste. The stalk is usually bent, the calyx
larger, the pericarp more leathery, and the
dissepiment does not extend throughout the entire
length of the fruit. The colour of the pericarp may
be red, yellowish-red or brownish-red. 90
Capsicum

Capsicum

91
Capsicum
Constituents:
 The most important constituent of capsicum fruit is the pungent principle,
capsaicin (0.05 – 0.14 %), which are colourless, odorless crystals.
 It also contains a minute quantity of a liquid alkaloid which is not pungent;
 a fixed oil – carotin and a red coloring matter – capsanthin.
 The seeds may contain traces of starch.
 Capsicum fruits yield from 20 – 25 % of alcoholic extract, known in commerce
as capsaicin.
Uses:
 It is applied externally as a stimulant and counter – irritant.
 Internally it is used as a pungent stomachic, carminative and stimulant and to
dispel flatulence.
 Capsaicin is currently used in topical ointments, as well as a high-dose dermal
patch, to relieve the pain of peripheral neuropathy.

92
9 - Scrophulariaceae
1. Digitalis,

2. Verbascum (Mullien).

93
Digitalis

Plant Name: Digitalis

Scientific Name: Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata

Common Name: Purple Foxglove, Folia digitalis,

Family: Scrophulariaceae

Part Used: Leaves

Geographical Source: Widely distributed throughout Europe and
common in England, where it is cultivated as a garden plant, as well
as for medicinal use.

Plant Description: Biennial herb.

Description of Part Used: Foxglove leaves are usually about 10 – 20
cm. long and 4 – 10 cm. wide but under cultivation may become as
much as 40 cm. long and 15 cm. wide. The upper surface is deep
green and grayish, the lower pale green and more grey. The lamina is
broadly ovate, simple and entire. The texture is papery.

The odor is somewhat tea-like and the taste is bitter.

94
Digitalis

Digitalis purpurea flowers Digitalis purpurea plant

95
Digitalis
Constituents: In the fresh leaf and probably also in the carefully dried
leaf there are two glycosides named purpurea-glycosides A and B.
Purpurea glycoside A is hydrolyzed to yield 1 molecule of digitoxin
which is also a glycoside, and 1 molecule of glucose. Purpurea
glycoside B similarly yields the glycoside gitoxin and 1 molecule of
gIucose.

Digitoxin, on hydrolysis gives the aglycone digitoxigenin and 3
molecules of a sugar named digitoxose while gitoxin yields
gitoxigenin and 3 molecules of digitoxose.

Other glycosides in the leaf are odoroside H, which yields
digitoxigenin and 1 molecule of digitalose; also the glycosides
gitaloxin, glucogitaloxin, verodoxin and glucoverodoxin, all of which
yield the aglycone gitaloxigenin. In addition the leaves contain a
yellow flavone, luteolin, and two saponins – digitonin and gitonin. An
enzyme is also present.
Uses: Foxglove leaves increase the activity of muscular tissue especially
that of the heart, and is employed in most forms of cardiac failure. It is
used to increase cardiac contractility (it is a positive inotrope) and as
an antiarrhythmic agent to control the heart rate, particularly in the
irregular (and often fast) atrial fibrillation.
96
Verbascum

Plant Name: Mullein

Scientific Name: Verbascum thapsus

Common Name: Great Mullein or Common Mullein

Family: Scrophulariaceae

Part Used: The leaves and flowers are the parts used medicinally.

Geographical Source: Native to Europe

Plant Description: It is a hairy biennial plant that can grow to 2 m or
more tall. Its small yellow flowers are densely grouped on a tall stem.

Description of Part Used: In the first season of the plant's growth,
there appears only a rosette of large leaves, 6 – 15 inches long,
whitish with a soft, dense mass of hairs on both sides, which make
them very thick to the touch.

In the following spring, a solitary, stout, pale stem, with tough, strong
fibers enclosing a thin rod of white pith, arises from the midst of the
felted leaves.

Its rigid uprightness accounts for some of the plant's local names:
Aaron's Rod, Jupiter's or Jacob's Staff etc.

The odor is peculiar and agreeable and taste is mucilaginous.
97
Verbascum

herbaceous perennial plant developing inflorescence

98
Verbascum
Constituents:
 They contain gum as their principal constituent, together with 1 - 2 % of resin.
 a readily soluble amaroid; a little tannin and a trace of volatile oil.
 The flowers contain gum, resin, a yellow coloring principle, a green fatty matter
(a sort of chlorophyll), fatty matter; free acid and phosphoric acid; un-
crystallizable sugar; some mineral salts and a small amount of yellowish
volatile oil.
Uses:
 It is widely used for herbal remedies with emollient and astringent properties.
 Also used in topical applications against a variety of skin problems.
 The flowers provide dyes of bright yellow or green, and have been used for hair
dye.
 The dried stems were also dipped into suet or wax to make torches.
 The combination of expectorant saponins and emollient mucilage makes the
plant particularly effective for cough.

99
10 - Labiatae

1. Peppermint,

2. Thyme,

3. Spearmint,

4. Salvia,

5. Ocimum 100
Peppermint

Plant Name: Peppermint

Scientific Name: Mentha piperita

Common Name: Podina, Mint.

Family: Labiatae / Lamiaceae.

Part Used: Herb/ Fresh Leaves

Geographical Source: The plant grows wild in Britain and in most
parts of central and southern Europe and North America. It is
cultivated chiefly in Britain, France and Germany.

Plant Description: It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant, of
which there are two varieties, known as White Peppermint and Black
Peppermint.

Description of Part Used: Mentha piperita is a perennial herb with a
creeping rhizome. The aerial stems are erect, square and smooth.

The leaves are opposite, shortly petiolated, nearly glabrous, ovate,
about 3 to 8 cm. long and twice as long as broad.

101
Peppermint

102
Peppermint
Constituents:
 The chief constituent of peppermint is 0.7 – 1.5% volatile oil.
 The drug also contains about 6 – 12 % of tannin.
 The chief constituents of the oil are about 50 – 60 % menthol, menthyl acetate,
menthyl isovalerianate, menthone, about 9 – 12% cineole and small amounts
of several terpenes.
Uses:
 Peppermint is a carminative and an aromatic stimulant.
 It is generally administered in the form of an infusion.
 The volatile oil is more commonly used than the herb.
 Also used as flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals.
 Often used as tea and for flavoring ice cream, confectionery, chewing gum, and
toothpaste.
 Peppermint can also be found in some shampoos and soaps, which give the hair
a minty scent and produce a cooling sensation on the skin. Used in this way, it
has been known to help with insomnia.
103
Thyme

Plant Name: Thyme

Scientific Name: Thymus vulgaris

Common Name: English thyme, Common thyme, Garden thyme.

Family: Labiatae/ Lamiaceae

Part Used: Fresh flowering tops

Geographical Source: Indigenous to Mountains of Spain and other
European countries bordering on the Mediterranean. Flourishing also
in Asia Minor, Algeria and Tunis. It is cultivated now in most
countries with temperate climates.

Plant Description: It is a small perennial plant. It has woody, fibrous
root. The stems are numerous, round, hard, branched, and usually
from 4 – 8 inches high and maximum up to 1 foot. The leaves are
small, narrow and elliptical, greenish-grey in color and set in pairs.

Description of Part Used: Small lilac flowers are born in summer and
they are quite attractive.

The plant has an agreeable aromatic smell and a warm pungent taste.

It is in flower from May to August.

104
Thyme

105
Thyme

Constituents:
 Thymol (40%),
 p-cymene (30%),
 linalol (7%),
 carvacrol (1%);
 0.5 – 2.5% oil contents.

Uses:
 The flowering tops are anthelmintic, strongly antiseptic, antispasmodic,
carminative, deodorant, diaphoretic, disinfectant, expectorant, sedative and
tonic.
 The plant is used internally in the treatment of dry coughs, whooping cough,
bronchitis, bronchial catarrh, asthma, laryngitis, indigestion, gastritis and
diarrhoea and enuresis in children.

106
Spearmint

Plant Name: Spearmint, Mint

Scientific Name: Mentha spicata

Common Name: Pahari podina, Green Mint, Garden Mint.

Family: Labiatae/ Lamiaceae.

Part Used: Herb/ Fresh leaves.

Geographical Source: Originally a native of the Mediterranean
region, and was introduced into Britain by the Romans, being largely
cultivated by the other Mediterranean nations as well.

Plant Description: It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant
growing 30 – 100 cm tall, with variably hairless to hairy stems and
foliage, and a wide-spreading fleshy underground rhizome.

Description of Part Used:

The leaves are 5 – 9 cm long and 1.5 – 3 cm broad, with a serrated
margin.

It produces pink or white flowers in slender spikes.
107
Spearmint

108
Spearmint
Constituents:
 Main constituents are 50–70% (−)-carvone ,
 2–25% (−)-limonene and
 1 – 2% oil contents.

Uses:
 Flavoring agent, carminative & aromatherapy.

 Spearmint is taken as tea for the treatment of stomach ache.

 Recent research has shown that spearmint tea may be used as a treatment
for mild hirsutism in women.
 It is used as a flavoring agent for toothpaste and confectionery, and is
sometimes added to shampoos and soaps.

109
Salvia

Plant Name: Salvia

Scientific Name: Salvia officinalis

Common Name: Sage, Common sage, Garden Sage, Red Sage, Shalbia,
Mariam Gali, ‫ويسة‬SS‫ق‬ :‫ربية‬C‫لع‬CC‫ا‬

Family: Labiatae/ Lamiaceae

Part Used: Herb

Geographical Source: The genus is distributed throughout the world, with the
origin appearing to be Central and South Western Asia.

Plant Description: Salvia species include annual, biennial, or perennial
herbs, along with woody based sub-shrubs.

Description of Part Used: Sage generally grows about a foot or more high,
with wiry stems.

The leaves are set in pairs on the stem and are 1½ to 2 inches long. They are
softly hairy having grayish-green color.

The flowers are in whorls & purplish in color.

All parts have a scented odor and astringent taste, due to the volatile oil
contained in the tissues. 110
Salvia

111
Salvia
Constituents:
 The chief constituent of Sage and its active principle is a yellow or greenish-
yellow volatile oil with a penetrating odor.
 Tannins and resins are also present in the leaves,
 0.5 to 1.0 % of the oil is yielded from the leaves and twigs when fresh, and
about three times this quantity when dry.
 Salvia oil contains a hydrocarbon called Salvene.
 Pinene and Cineol are probably present in small amount, together with
Borneol, a small quantity of esters, and the ketone – thujone.
Uses:
 It is used as Stimulant, astringent, tonic and carminative.
 Has been used in dyspepsia, but is now mostly employed as a condiment.
 The fresh leaves, rubbed on the teeth, will cleanse them and strengthen the
gums.
 Salvia is a common ingredient in tooth powders.

112
Ocimum

Plant Name: Tulsi

Scientific Name: Ocimum sanctum, Ocimum tenuiflorum

Common Name: Tulsi

Family: Labiateae/ Lamiaceae

Part Used: Dried leaves

Geographical Source: The plant is cultivated throughout India
specially in Hindu houses for worship.

Plant Description: It is an erect, much branched sub-shrub, 30-60 cm
tall with hairy stems and simple opposite green leaves that are
strongly scented.

Description of Part Used: Leaves have petioles, and are ovate, up to
5 cm long, usually slightly toothed.

Flowers are purplish in elongate racemes & close whorls. There are
two main morphotypes cultivated in India —
 green-leaved (Sri or Lakshmi tulsi) and
 purple-leaved (Krishna tulsi).

There is also a variety of Ocimum tenuiflorum which is used in Thai
cuisine, and is referred to as Thai holy basil.
113
Ocimum

114
Ocimum
Constituents:
 Leaves contain 0.7% of volatile oil.
 The prominent constituents of the essential oils are

71% eugenol,

20% methyleugenol,

3% carvacrol and

1.7% caryophylline.
 Oil of Philippine species contains methyl chavicol, cineoline and linalol.

Uses:
 Leaves have expectorant, diaphoretic, antiperiodic, anticatarrhal, antiseptic and
spasmolytic properties.
 Leaves are used as aromatic, carminative, stimulant and flavouring agent.
 Seeds are demulcent and given in disorders of the genito-urinary system.
 The plant is also used in snake bite and scorpion sting.

115
11 - Liliaceae
Garlic,
1.

Colchicum,
2.

Aloe
3.

116
Garlic

Plant Name: Garlic

Scientific Name: Allium sativum

Common Name: Lahsun, Allium.

Family: Liliaceae

Part Used: Bulb

Geographical Source: It originates in the Yunnan province of China.
Occurs in Central Asia, Southern Europe and U.S.A. Widely
cultivated in India & Pakistan.

Plant Description: It is a perennial herb having bulbs with several
cloves, enclosed in a silky white or pink membranous envelope.

Description of Part Used: It has a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor
that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking. A bulb of
garlic is divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves.

117
Garlic

118
Garlic
Constituents:
 When crushed, garlic yields allicin, a powerful antibiotic and antifungal
compound.
 It also contains the sulfur containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallylsulfide,
dithiin, S-allylcysteine, enzymes, vitamin B, proteins, minerals, saponins &
flavonoids.
Uses:
 Garlic is claimed to help prevent heart disease (including atherosclerosis, high
cholesterol, and high blood pressure) and cancer.
 It has been found to reduce platelet aggregation and hyperlipidemia.
 Garlic is also supposed to help regulate blood sugar levels.

 In 1858, Louis Pasteur observed garlic's antibacterial activity, and it was used as
an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World War I and II.
 It is carminative, aphrodisiac, expectorant, stimulant and used in fevers, coughs
and respiratory diseases such as chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, whooping
cough and tuberculosis.

119
Colchicum

Plant Name: Colchicum Corm

Scientific Name: Colchicum autumnale, Colchicum luteum

Common Name: Gule e hasrat, Suranjan e shireen, Meadow saffron,
Wild saffron ; Indian colchicum – Darkom.

Family: Liliaceae

Part Used: Corm deprived of its membranous coats and dried.

Geographical Source: Found in England, Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Yugoslavia, U.S.A. And Holland. In India C. luteum is used as a
substitute of C. autumnale.

Plant Description: Plant is an annual herb

Description of Part Used: The corms are brownish and translucent or,
more rarely, opaque and cream or brownish grey colored. Usually
ovate in outline and the margin of which exhibits scars left by the
removal of the fibrous roots.

The outer surface of the corm is marked by indefinite and irregular
longitudinal striations.
120
 Colchicum

Colchicum autumnale Colchicum autumnale

Colchicum luteum
121
Colchicum
Constituents:

Colchicum corm contains about 0.21 – 0.25% of colchicine,
colchicoresin and abundant of starch.
Uses:

Colchicum corm or colchicine is gout depressant and used to treat
gout and rheumatism.

Higher doses cause diarrhoea and vomiting (cathartic & emetic
effect).

Used for the treatment of back ache.

Also anticancer activity has been reported.

122
Aloe

Plant Name: Aloe

Scientific Name: Aloe barbadensis (Curacao or Barbados Aloe), Aloe
vera, Aloe africana, Aloe ferox (Cape Aloe).

Common Name: Kunwar gandal, Ghekwar, Musabbar, aloe

Family: Liliaceae

Part Used: Liquid is obtained from transversely cut leaves which is
concentrated on boiling and solidifies on cooling.

Geographical Source: Indigenous to eastern and southern Africa.
Cultivated in West Indian islands off the South America.

Plant Description: There are about 180 different species of Aloe. It is a
typical xerophyte with thick, fleshy, strongly cuticularized, spiny marginated
leaves arranged in a rosette formation.

Description of Part Used: The plants yielding aloes bear rosettes of large
sessile leaves, flat or slightly concave on the upper surface and strongly
rounded on the lower side. They are with a strong spine at the apex and the
smaller ones along the margins. The leaves are 25 – 50 cm long and 5 – 10
cm wide at the base. Colour ranges from reddish black to brownish black &
fracture is waxy. Taste is nauseous and bitter and odour is like iodoform.
123
 Aloe

Aloe vera
Aloe barbadensis

rosette of large spiny leaves

and the inflorescence

Aloe ferox
Aloe africana 124
Aloe
Constituents:
 The principal constituent of all the varieties of aloes is the pale yellow,
crystalline substance barbaloin. In Curacao aloes the barbaloin is accompanied
by isobarbaloin.
 The crystalline aloin is accompanied by an amorphous aloin.
 Other constituents of aloes are resin and aloe-emodin.
 In addition there are water-soluble substances (other than the aloins) of which
nothing definite is known.
Uses:
 All the varieties of aloes have a more or less powerful purgative action.
 Aloe is one of the most valuable purgatives in certain forms of constipation, as
it improves the digestion and does not lose in activity by repetition.
 Aloe vera juice is used for relief of digestive issues such as heartburn and
irritable bowel syndrome.
 Aloe vera extracts might have antibacterial and antifungal activities, which
possibly could help treat minor skin infections, such as boils.

125
 12 - Zingiberaceae
Ginger,
1.

Curcuma/ Turmeric
2.

126
Ginger

Plant Name: Ginger

Scientific Name: Zingiber officinalis

Common Name: Adrak, Zingabeel, Sunth, Sundh.

Family: Zingiberaceae

Part Used: Rhizome

Geographical Source: Indigenous to south-eastern Asia & cultivated
in many tropical countries, notably in the West Indies, India, Nigeria
and West Africa. The most highly valued variety comes from Jamaica.
Varieties from India and Africa are more pungent and less pleasantly
aromatic in taste.

Plant Description: Ginger plants can grow to about 1 m tall. The
upright shoots sprout from the rhizome at the base of the plant.

Description of Part Used: Jamaica ginger occurs in branched pieces
known as “races” or “hands”. These pieces are from 7 – 12 cm long
and up to 6.5 cm high. Each piece consists of a horizontal rhizome
from which vertical branches arise. These are about 3 to 6 cm long and
known as “fingers”.

Externally the drug is pale yellowish, the surface being longitudinally
striated and somewhat fibrous. The fracture is short with projecting
fibers and is hard and somewhat resinous. The odor is agreeable and
aromatic & the taste is pleasantly pungent and aromatic. 127
Ginger

128
Ginger
Constituents:
 Ginger contains from 0.25 – 3.0 % of a volatile oil possessing the aroma but not
the pungency of the drug.
 The pungency is due to a yellowish oily body, gingerol, which is odorless, but
has an intensely pungent taste, and shogaol.
 In addition the drug contains resin and about 56% of starch.
Uses:
 Ginger is largely used as a condiment and flavoring agent.
 Medicinally it is used as a carminative and aromatic stimulant.
 Prescribed in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, cold, cough and asthma.
 Sore throat, harshness and loss of voice are sometimes benefited by chewing a
piece of ginger.
 Ginger tea is used for the treatment of common cold.

129
Turmeric

Plant Name: Turmeric

Scientific Name: Curcuma longa, Curcuma domestica

Common Name: Haldi, kurkaman (Pushto)

Family: Zingiberaceae

Part Used: Dried Rhizome

Geographical Source: Native of tropical south Asia. It is cultivated in
India, China, Java, and other tropical countries.

Plant Description: A perennial plant with oblong roots or tubers and
deep orange inside.

Description of Part Used: Finger or long turmeric occurs in curved or
nearly straight cylindrical pieces bluntly tapering at each end. The
outer surface is of a deep yellowish brown color, longitudinally
wrinkled and marked with transverse rings (leaf-scars).

They break with a short fracture. Internally they have a uniform dull
brownish – yellow, waxy appearance.

The drug has a characteristic aromatic odor and taste, and when
chewed colors the saliva yellow.

130
Turmeric

131
 Turmeric
Constituents:
 Turmeric contains about 5 % of volatile oil, resin and a crystalline yellow
substance, curcumin.
 These occur, in the fresh rhizome, in the particular secreting cells in which they
have been produced, but pass into the surrounding tissue during the scalding.
Uses:
 Turmeric is used as a condiment and coloring agent, and as a reagent for the
detection of alkaloids & boric acid.
 Turmeric is a mild aromatic stimulant seldom used in medicine except as a
coloring agent.
 It was once a cure for jaundice. Its chief use is in the manufacture of curry
powders.
 Turmeric paste is traditionally used by Indian women to keep them free of
superfluous hair and as an antimicrobial.
 Turmeric figures prominently in the bridal beautification ceremonies. Staining
oneself with turmeric is believed to improve the skin tone and tan.

132