Anatomy and Physiology

of Farm Animals
Compiled by:

SAMUEL B. DE LA VEGA, JR. , MPM

 Classification Of Living Organisms

The method that has been agreed by biologists for

doing this is called the classification system. The
system is based on the assumption that the process of
evolution has, over the millennia, brought about slow
changes that have converted simple one-celled
organisms to complex multi-celled ones and generated
the earth’s incredible diversity of life forms. The
classification system attempts to reflect the
evolutionary relationships between organisms.
 Classification Of Living Organisms

At present most biologists divide the living world into 5

kingdoms, namely:
Bacteria, protists, fungi, plants and Animal

We are concerned here almost entirely with the Animal

Kingdom. However, we must not forget that bacteria,
protists, and fungi cause many of the serious diseases that
affect animals, and all animals rely either directly or
indirectly on the plant world for their nourishment.
 Classification Of Living Organisms

Animals:
eat organic material (plants or other animals)
move to find food
Take the food into their bodies and then digest it
Reproduce by fertilizing eggs by sperm
 Classification Of Vertebrates

As we have seen above the Vertebrates are divided

into 5 groups or classes namely:
1. Fish
2. Amphibia (frogs and toads)
3. Reptiles (snakes and crocodiles)
4. Birds
5. Mammals
 Classification Of Vertebrates

As we have seen above the Vertebrates are divided

into 5 groups or classes namely:
1. Fish
2. Amphibia (frogs and toads)
3. Reptiles (snakes and crocodiles)
4. Birds
5. Mammals
The class Mammalia (the mammals) contains
3 subclasses:

1. Duck billed platypus and the spiny anteater

2. Marsupials (animals like the kangaroo with
pouches)
3. True mammals (with a placenta)
Examples of six mammalian orders are given below:
1. Rodents (Rodentia) (rats and mice)
2. Carnivores (Carnivora) (cats, dogs, bears and
seals)
3. Even-toed grazers (Artiodactyla) (pigs, sheep,
cattle, antelopes)
4. Odd-toed grazers (Perissodactyla) (horses,
donkeys, zebras)
5. Marine mammals (Cetacea) (whales, sea cows)
6. Primates (monkeys, apes, humans)
To summarise, the classification system consists
of:

The Animal Kingdom which is divided into:

Phyla which are divided into

Classes which are divided into
Orders which are divided into
Families which are divided into
Genera which are divided into
Anatomy and Physiology
of Farm Animals
 Definition of Anatomy and Physiology

Physiology
1. A study of function of living matter
2. Study of function of the parts of organ systems
of the body
3. Provides knowledge on the structure and
function of the body and constantly, the care of
the body
 WHAT ARE THE ORGAN SYSTEMS OF
THE BODY OF THE ANIMALS?

These are:
1. Skeletal system
2. Nervous System
3. Endocrine System
4. Cardio-Vascular System
5. Respiratory System
6. Excretory System
7. Reproductive System
Skeletal System
 BONES

A highly specialized supportive tissue

which is characterized by its rigidity
and hardness
 FUNCTIONS OF BONES

1. Provide Mechanical Support

2. Permit Locomotion
3. Provide Protection
4. Act as a metabolic reservoir of
minerals
 Composition of Bones :

1. Cells
The bone is composed of four cell
types:
a. Osteogenic Cellss
b. Osteoblasts
c. Osteocytes
d. Osteoclast
a. Osteogenic Cells– Located in the inner layer of
the periosteum and by differentiation, they give
rise to osteoblast.
b. Osteoblasts – they are bone secreting cells and
line the trabecular surfaces of the bone
c. Osteocytes – maintains integrity of the bone by
supplying nutrient derived from the blood vessels
in the canaliculi.
d. Osteoclast – derived from the fusing of osteocytes
and is located in the Howship’s lacuna at the
bone surface.
 Composition of Bones :

2. Osteoid
A non-mineral matrix of collagen and
glycosaminoglycan.
3. Inorganic mineral salt deposited
within the matrix.
 Classification of Bones According to the
frequency of Appearance of interosseous
spaces: :

1. Cancellous Bone – consisting of few

trabeculae and many of the interosseous
spaces.
2. Compact bone – consist of extensive
lamallae and fewer interosseous spaces.
This bone develops into existing
trabeculae to form layers called
lamellae.
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

1. Long Bones – acts as levers, support and

locomotion.
Examples:
Forelimb: humerous, radius, ulna,
metarpals, phalanges
Hind Limb: Femur, tibia, fibula,
metatarsals, phalanges.
 Long Bones

If you cut a long bone lengthways you will see it

consists of a hollow cylinder (see diagram 6.13). The
outer shell is covered by a tough fibrous sheath to
which the tendons are attached. Under this is a layer of
hard, dense compact bone (see below). This gives the
bone its strength. The central cavity contains
fatty yellow marrow, an important energy store for
the body, and the ends are made from honeycomb-like
bony material called spongy bone (see box below).
Spongy bone contains red marrow where red blood
cells are made.
Long Bones
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

2. Short Bones – it is cuboidal or of equal in

shape and serves as absorber of concussion.

Example:
Carpals, tarsals
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

2. Short Bones – it is cuboidal or of equal in

shape and serves as absorber of concussion.

Example:
Carpals, tarsals
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

3. Flat Bones – a thin and expanded bones

which protects vital organs as well as
provides area for muscle attachment.
Example:
skull, ribs, scapula and pelvic bones
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

4. Sesamoid bones – sesame –seed shaped

bones which develops along the tendons and
functions in the reduction of friction and
change the course of the tendons
Example:
patella
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

5. Irregular Bones – these are unpaired

bones in median plane which serves as
protection and support and also for muscle
attachment.
Example:
Vertebral column and some bones of the
skull.
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

6. Pneumatic Bones – characterized by the

presence of air spaces or sinuses that
communicate with the exterior
Example:
Flying birds, Maxillary and frontal bones
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

7. Axial Skeleton – includes all bones except

those of the limbs or appendages composed
of the skull, vertebrate and ribs.
8. Appendicular Skeleton – made up of
bones of the limbs: the front limbs and bones
of the hind limbs.
 Compact Bone

Compact bone is not the lifeless material it may

appear at first glance. It is a living dynamic tissue with
blood vessels, nerves and living cells that continually
rebuild and reshape the bone structure as a result of
the stresses, bends and breaks it experiences. Compact
bone is composed of microscopic hollow cylinders
that run parallel to each other along the length of the
bone. Each of these cylinders is called a Haversian
system. Blood vessels and nerves run along the central
canal of each Haversian system.
 Classification of Bones based on the
Gross Appearance:

7. Axial Skeleton – includes all bones except

those of the limbs or appendages composed
of the skull, vertebrate and ribs.
8. Appendicular Skeleton – made up of
bones of the limbs: the front limbs and bones
of the hind limbs.
 JOINTS
Joints are the structures in the skeleton where 2 or more
bones meet. There are several different types of joints. Some
are immovable once the animal has reached maturity.
Examples of these are those between the bones of the skull
and the midline joint of the pelvic girdle. Some are slightly
moveable like the joints between the vertebrae but most
joints allow free movement and have a typical structure with
a fluid filled cavity separating the articulating surfaces
(surfaces that move against each other) of the two bones
JOINTS
 COMMON NAMES OF JOINTS
Some joints in animals are given common names that tend to
be confusing. For example:
The joint between the femur and the tibia on the hind leg is
our knee but the stifle in animals.
Our ankle joint (between the tarsals and metatarsals) is
the hock in animals
Our knuckle joint (between the metacarpals or metatarsals
and the phalanges) is the fetlock in the horse.
The “knee” on the horse is equivalent to our wrist (ie on the
front limb between the radius and metacarpals)
COMMON NAMES OF JOINTS
 Vertebral Column
The vertebral column consists of a series of bones
called vertebrae linked together to form a flexible
column with the skull at one end and the tail at the
other. Each vertebra consists of a ring of bone with
spines (spinous process) protruding dorsally from
it. The spinal cord passes through the hole in the
middle and muscles attach to the spines making
movement of the body possible
Vertebral Column
 The Skull
The skull of mammals consists of 30 separate bones
that grow together during development to form a
solid case protecting the brain and sense organs.
 The Rib
Paired ribs are attached to each thoracic vertebra against
which they move in breathing. Each rib is attached
ventrally either to the sternum or to the rib in front by
cartilage to form the rib cage that protects the heart and
lungs. In dogs one pair of ribs is not attached ventrally at
all. They are called floating ribs.
 The Forelimb
The forelimb consists of: Humerus, radius and ulna,
carpals, metacarpals, digits or phalanges. The top of the
humerus moves against (articulates with) thescapula at
the shoulder joint.
 The Hind limb

The hind limbs have a similar basic pattern to the

forelimb. They consist of: femur, tibia and fibula,
tarsals, metatarsals, digits or phalanges. The top
of the femur moves against (articulates with) the
pelvis at the hip joint.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 FUNCTION OF NERVOUS
SYSTEM

1. Controls the rapid activities of the body

such as muscular contraction, secretion of
some endocrine glands, heart rate and,
respiration rate, gastrointestinal motility
and rapid reflex action.
BRAIN
SPINAL CORD
NERVES
 CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
(According to the Direction of impulse
conduction)

1. Afferent (sensory) neuron – transmits

nerve impulses from effector organs to the
spinal cord or brain.
2. Efferent (motor) neuron – transmits nerve
impulses from the spinal cord or brain to
the effector organs.
3. Interneuron – conducts impulses from an
afferent neuron within the Central
Nervous System (CNS)
 2 TYPE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – contains

the majority of the nervous system and
consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – resides
or extends outside the limbs and organ. It
is not protected by bones, leaving it
exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries.
 2 DIVISION OF PNS

1.SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM –

innervates striated or skeletal muscles which
bring about quick adjustments to changes in
environment.

2. AUTONOMIC – innervates glands and

visceral musculature.
2 MAJOR DIVISION OF AUTONOMIC

1. SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM –

aids in the control of most body’s interval
organs, work to mobilize the body’s resources
for action under stress.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System – works
to promote maintenance of body at rest.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The nervous and endocrine systems both work

together to bring about this adaptation. In
general the nervous system responds rapidly to
short-term changes by sending electrical
impulses along nerves and the endocrine system
brings about longer-term adaptations by sending
out chemical messengers called hormones into
the blood stream.
Endocrinology – a branch of phisiology that
deals with the study of the endocrine system.

Hormones – a substance or chemical mediator

that produced gland and carried by the blood
to some to some distant part of the body
where it exerts its effects. It does not initiate
reaction in a cell but only excite or inhibit the
ongoing cell reaction.
 FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

1. Appears to regulate than initiate reaction.

2. Effective bio-catalytic amounts.
3. Hormones are not secreted in uniform rates.
4. They inactivated rapidly either at the site where
it exerts its effect or at some other glands or
organs.
5. They are transported through circulatory system
or blood stream.
 Endocrine Glands And Hormones

The main endocrine glands in the body are

the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid,
and adrenal glands, the pancreas,
ovaries and testes
 Endocrine Glands And Hormones
Hormones are chemicals that are secreted by endocrine
glands. Unlike exocrine glands, endocrine glands have
no ducts, but release their secretions directly into the
blood system, which carries them throughout the body.
However, hormones only affect the specific target
organs that recognize them. For example, although it is
carried to virtually every cell in the body, follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH), released from the anterior
pituitary gland, only acts on the follicle cells of the
ovaries causing them to develop.
The Pituitary Gland And Hypothalamus

The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure

that is attached by a stalk to the underside of
the cerebrum of the brain (see diagram 16.2). It
is often called the “master” endocrine gland
because it controls many of the other endocrine
glands in the body. However, we now know
that the pituitary gland is itself controlled by
the hypothalamus.
 Hormones secreted by Anterior Pituitary
Gland
1. Growth hormone that stimulates body growth.
2. Prolactin that initiates milk production.
3. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) that stimulates
the development of the follicles of the ovaries. These
then secrete oestrogen (see chapter 6).
4. melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) that causes
darkening of skin by producing melanin
5. lutenizing hormone (LH) that stimulates ovulation
and production of progesterone and testosterone
Hormones secreted by Posterior Pituitary
Gland

1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), regulates water loss and

increases blood pressure
2. Oxytocin, milk "let down"
 The Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is found deep within the brain. It is

sometimes known as the ‘third eye” as it responds to
light and day length. It produces the hormonemelatonin,
which influences the development of sexual maturity and
the seasonality of breeding and hibernation. Bright light
inhibits melatonin secretion Low level of melatonin in
bright light makes one feel good and this increases
fertility. High level of melatonin in dim light makes an
animal tired and depressed and therefore causes low
fertility in animals.
The Pineal Gland
 The Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is situated in the neck, just in front of
the windpipe or trachea. It produces the
hormone thyroxine, which influences the rate of growth
and development of young animals. In mature animals it
increases the rate of chemical reactions in the body.
Thyroxine consists of 60% iodine and too little in the
diet can cause goitre, an enlargement of the thyroid
gland. To add to the problem, chemicals
called goitrogens that occur naturally in plants like kale
that belong to the cabbage family, can also cause goitre
even when there is adequate iodine available.
The Thyroid Gland
 The Adrenal Gland
The adrenal glands are situated on the cranial surface of
the kidneys. There are two parts to this endocrine gland,
an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
The Hormons secreted by Adrenal Cortex
1. Aldosterone that regulates the concentration of sodium
and potassium in the blood by controlling the amounts that
are secreted or reabsorbed in the kidney tubules.
2. Cortisone and hydrocortisone (cortisol) that have
complex effects on glucose, protein and fat metabolism. In
general they increase metabolism. They are also often
administered to animals to counteract allergies and for
treating arthritic and rheumatic conditions. However,
prolonged use should be avoided if possible as they can
increase weight and reduce the ability to heal.
The Hormons secreted by Adrenal Cortex

3. Male and female sex hormones similar to those

secreted by the ovaries and testes.
 The Pancreas
In most animals the pancreas is an oblong, pinkish organ
that lies in the first bend of the small intestine. In rodents
and rabbits, however, it is spread thinly through the
mesentery and is sometimes difficult to see.
 The Testes
Cells around the sperm producing ducts of the
testis produce the hormone testosterone. This
stimulates the development of the male
reproductive system and the male sexual
characteristics - generally larger body of male
animals, mane in lions, tusks in boars, etc
 The Ovaries
1.The follicle cells, under the influence of FSH,
produce estrogen, which stimulates the development of
female sexual characteristics - the mammary glands,
generally smaller build of female animals etc. It also
stimulates the thickening of the lining of the uterus in
preparation for pregnancy
2. Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, the
endocrine gland that develops in the empty follicle
following ovulation. It promotes the further preparation
of the uterine lining for pregnancy and prevents the
uterus contracting until the baby is born
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

 - is an organ system that permits blood to

circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino
acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from
the cells in the body to provide nourishment and
help in fighting diseases, stabilize
temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. 
 BLOOD
A unique fluid containing cells that is pumped by the
heart around the body of animals in a system of pipes
known as the circulatory system. It carries oxygen and
nutrients to the cells of the body and removes waste
products like carbon dioxide from them. Blood is also
important for keeping conditions in the body constant,
in other words for maintaining homeostasis. It helps
keep the acidity or pH stable and helps maintain a
constant temperature in the body. Blood also has an
important role in defending the body against disease.
If you leave the tube to
stand for a few hours you
will find that it settles out
into two layers. The top
layer consists of a light
yellow fluid, the plasma,
and the bottom layer
consists ofred blood
cells (RBCs).

If you look very carefully you can also see a thin beige-
coloured layer in between these two layers. This
consists of the white blood cells (WBCs)
 Plasma
It consists of water (91%) in which many substances are
dissolved. These dissolved substances include:

salts (or electrolytes)

proteins
nutrients
waste products
dissolved gases (mainly carbon dioxide)
and other chemicals like hormones
Salts in the plasma are in the form
of ions or electrolytes which include
sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride,
phosphate and bicarbonate. Plasma
transports these ions to where they are
needed e.g. calcium required by the bones,
they also help keep the osmotic pressure
and acid-base balance (pH) of the blood
within the required levels.
 Blood Proteins
The proteins in the blood plasma are large
molecules with important functions. Some
contribute to the osmotic pressure (see chapter
3) and the viscosity (thickness) of the blood, and
so help keep the blood volume and pressure
stable. Others act as antibodies that attack
bacteria and viruses, and yet others are important
in blood clotting.
 Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells are also known as RBCs
or erythrocytes. They are what make blood red. When
you look at a blood smear through a microscope, as you
will in one of the practical classes, you will see that
RBCs are by far the most common cells in the blood.
(In fact there are about 5 million per millilitre)
The mature RBCs of mammals have neither nucleus nor
other organelles and can be thought of as sacks
of haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a red coloured protein
containing iron, which joins with oxygen so the blood
can transport it to body cells. RBCs are made
continuously in the bone marrow and live about 120
days. They are then destroyed in the liver and spleen
and the molecules they are made from recycled to make
new RBCs. Anaemia results if the rate at which RBCs
are destroyed exceeds the rate at which RBC'c are
'produced'.
 White Blood Cells
White blood cells or leucocytes are far less numerous
than red blood cells. In fact there is only about one
white cell for every 1000 red blood cells. Rather than
being white, they are actually colourless as they contain
no haemoglobin although unlike RBCs they do have a
nucleus.
White blood cells are divided into two major groups
depending on the shape of the nucleus and whether or
not there are granules in the cytoplasm.
1.Granulocytes or polymorphonuclear
leucocytes (“polymorphs” or “polys”) have granules in the
cytoplasm and a purple lobed nucleus (see diagram 8.3).
The most common (neutrophils) can squeeze out of
capillaries and are involved in engulfing and destroying
foreign invaders like bacteria
2. Agranulocytes or monomorphonuclear
leucocytes have a large unlobed nucleus and no granules in
the cytoplasm. There are two types of agranulocytes. The
most numerous are lymphocytes that are concerned with
immune responses. The second type is the monocyte that is
the largest blood cell and is involved in engulfing bacteria
etc. by phagocytosis
 Platelets
As well as red and white blood cells, the blood also
contains small irregular shaped fragments of cells
known as platelets. They are involved in the clotting of
the blood
 Anticoagulant
Anticoagulants are substances that
interfere with the clotting process.
When blood is collected for transfusion
or testing it is often important to
prevent it clotting and there are a
number of different anticoagulants you
can use for this.
1.Heparin (colour code - green) is a natural
anticoagulant produced by the white blood cells
but it is also used routinely in the laboratory with
samples to be tested for heavy metals like lead.
2.EDTA (colour code – lavender) is used for
routine blood counts.
3.Fluoroxylate (colour code – grey) is used for
biochemical tests for glucose.
4. Citrate (colour code – light blue) is used for
the storage of large quantities of blood, such as
used in transfusions.
 The Heart
The heart is the pump that pushes the blood around the
body in the blood vessels of the circulatory system. In
fish the blood only passes through the heart once on
its way to the gills and then round the rest of the body.
However, in mammals and birds that have lungs, the
blood passes through the heart twice: once on its way to
the lungs where it picks up oxygen and then through the
heart again to be pumped all over the body. The heart is
therefore two separate pumps, side by side
The Heart
 The Heart
Blood flows through the heart in a one way system. The
right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body
via the largest vein in the body called the vena cava.
The contraction of the atrium pumps the blood into the
right ventricle and then into the lungs via
the pulmonary artery. The blood is oxygenated in the
lungs and then returns to the heart and enters the left
atrium via the pulmonary vein. The contraction of the
left atrium pumps the blood into the left ventricle,
which then pumps it to the body via the aorta
 The Heart
The contraction of the left atrium pumps the
blood into the left ventricle, which then pumps it
to the body via the aorta. The wall of the left
ventricle is usually much thicker than that of the
right ventricle because it has to pump the blood
to the end of the digits and tip of the tail while
the right ventricle only has to pump the blood to
the nearby lungs.
 Valves
Valves are flaps of tissue that stop blood flowing
backwards and so control the direction of blood flow in
the heart

2 kinds of Valves:

1. atrio-ventricular valves - that prevent blood in the

ventricles from flowing back into the atria. The flaps of
these valves are attached to the walls of the ventricles
by tendons. These make them look somewhat like
parachutes
 Valves
2. pulmonary
and aortic
valves  - found
at the back of the
pulmonary artery
and aorta
respectively.
 The Heartbeat
The heartbeat consists of alternating contractions and relaxations
of the heart. It you listen to the heart with a stethoscope you hear
the sounds often described as “lubb-dupp”.
When a valve is damaged and fails to close completely some
blood may flow backwards after each heartbeat. A trained
veterinarian hears this with a stethoscope as a “heart murmur”.
The period of the heart beat when the ventricles are contracting
and sending a wave of blood down the pulmonary artery and
aorta is called systole. The period when the ventricles are
relaxing is called diastole.
Although oxygenated blood passes through some of the chambers
of the heart it can not supply the muscle of the heart walls with
the oxygen and nutrients it needs. Special arteries called
the coronary arteries do this.
 Blood Circulation
The circulatory system is the continuous system of
tubes through which the blood is pumped around the
body. It supplies the tissues with their requirements and
removes waste products. In mammals and birds the
blood circulates through two separate systems - the first
from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart again
(the pulmonary circulation) and the second from the
heart to the head and body and back again (the systemic
circulation)
The tubes through which the blood flows
are the arteries, capillaries and veins. The
heart pumps blood into arteries that carry it
away from the heart. The arteries divide
into very thin vessels called capillaries that
form a network between the cells of the
body. The capillaries then join up again to
make veins that return the blood to the
heart
 Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They have thick
elastic walls that stretch and can withstand the surges of
high pressure blood caused by the heartbeat (the pulse, see
later). The arteries divide into smaller vessels
called arterioles. The hole down the centre of the artery is
called the lumen. There are three layers of tissue in the
walls of an artery. It is lined with squamous epithelial cells.
The middle layer is the thickest layer. It made of elastic
fibres and smooth muscle to make it stretchy. The outer
fibrous layer protects the artery (see diagram 8.13).
The pulse is only felt in arteries.
Arteries
 Capillaries
Arterioles divide repeatedly to form a network penetrating
between the cells of all tissues of the body. These small
vessels are called capillaries. The walls are only one cell
thick and some capillaries are so narrow that red blood cells
have to fold up to pass through them. Capillaries form
networks in tissues called capillary beds. The capillary
networks in capillary beds are so dense that no living cell is
far from its supply of oxygen and food
 Veins
Capillaries unite to form larger vessels called venules that
join to form veins. Veins return blood to the heart and since
blood that flows in veins has already passed through the
fine capillaries, it flows slowly with no pulse and at low
pressure. For this reason veins have thinner walls than
arteries although there have the same three layers in them as
arteries. As there is no pulse in veins, the blood is squeezed
along them by the contraction of the skeletal muscles that
lay alongside them. Veins also have valves in them that
prevent blood flowing backwards
Edema is the swelling of the tissues due to the
accumulation of tissue fluid. This may occur because the
tissue fluid is prevented from returning to the bloodstream
and accumulates in the tissues. This may be caused by
physical inactivity (e.g. long car or plane trips in humans)
or because of imbalances in the proteins in the blood. This
is what causes the “pot-belly” of the malnourished child or
worm-infested puppy.
Loss of body fluid can be caused not only by
drinking insufficient liquid but also through diarrhea
and vomiting or sudden loss of blood due
to hemorrhage. The effect is to reduce the volume
of the blood which decreases the blood pressure.
This could be dangerous because the supply of
adequate blood to the brain depends upon
maintaining the blood pressure at a constant level.
When tissue fluid enters the small blind-ended lymphatic
capillaries that form a network between the cells it
becomes lymph. Lymph is a clear watery fluid that is very
similar to blood plasma except that it contains large
numbers of white blood cells, mostly lymphocytes. It also
contains protein, cellular debris, foreign particles and
bacteria. Lymph that comes from the intestines also
contains many fat globules following the absorption of fat
from the digested food into the lymphatics (lacteals) of the
villi (see chapter 11 for more on these). From the lymph
capillaries the lymph flows into larger tubes
called lymphatic vessels. 
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Provides oxygen to the cells of the body and to remove

excess carbon dioxide.
 The Air Passages
When air is breathed in it passes from the nose to the
alveoli of the lungs down a series of tubes. After
entering the nose the air passes through the nasal
cavity, which is lined with a moist membrane that adds
warmth and moisture to the air as it passes. The air then
flows through the pharynx or throat, a passage that
carries both food and air, to the larynx where the voice-
box is located. Here the passages for food and air
separate again.
 The Air Passages
Food must pass into the oesophagus and the air into
the windpipe or trachea. To prevent food entering
this, a small flap of tissue called
the epiglottis closes the opening during swallowing.
A reflex that inhibits breathing during swallowing
also (usually) prevents choking on food.
The trachea is the tube that ducts the air down the
throat. Incomplete rings of cartilage in its walls help
keep it open even when the neck is bent and head
turned
 The Air Passages

The air passage now divides into the

two bronchi that take the air to the right and left
lungs before dividing into smaller and
smaller bronchioles that spread throughout the
lungs to carry air to the alveoli. Smooth muscles in
the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles adjust the
diameter of the air passages.
 The Air Passages
The tissue lining the respiratory passages
produces mucus and is covered with minute
hairs or cilia. Any dust that is breathed into the
respiratory system immediately gets entangled
in the mucous and the cilia move it towards
the mouth or nose where it can be coughed up
or blown out.
The lungs fill most of the chest or thoracic
cavity, which is completely separated from
the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The
lungs and the spaces in which they lie (called
the pleural cavities) are covered with
membranes called the pleura. There is a thin
film of fluid between the two membranes.
This lubricates them as they move over each
other during breathing movements.
The process of breathing moves air in and
out of the lungs. Sometimes this process
is called respiration but it is important
not to confuse it with the chemical
process, cellular respiration, that takes
place in the mitochondria of cells.
Breathing is brought about by the
movement of the diaphragm and the ribs.
 Inspiration
The diaphragm is a thin sheet of muscle that
completely separates the abdominal and thoracic
cavities. When at rest it domes up into the
thoracic cavity but during breathing in
or inspiration it flattens. At the same time
special muscles in the chest wall move the ribs
forwards and outwards. These movements of
both the diaphragm and the ribs cause the
volume of the thorax to increase
 Expiration

Expiration or breathing out consists of the

opposite movements. The ribs move down and
in and the diaphragm resumes its domed shape
so the air is expelled (see diagram 9.4b).
Expiration is usually passive and no energy is
required (unless you are blowing up a
balloon).
EXCREATORY SYSTEM
 EXCREATORY SYSTEM
The kidneys in mammals are bean-
shaped organs that lie in the abdominal
cavity attached to the dorsal wall on
either side of the spine. An artery from
the dorsal aorta called the renal
artery supplies blood to them and
the renal vein drains them.
 KIDNEY
To the naked eye kidneys seem simple enough organs. They
are covered by a fibrous coat or capsule and if cut in half
lengthways (longitudinally) two distinct regions can be seen
- an inner region or medulla and the outer cortex. A cavity
within the kidney called the pelvis collects the urine and
carries it to the ureter, which connects with the bladder
where the urine is stored temporarily. Rings of muscle
(sphincters) control the release of urine from the bladder
and the urine leaves the body through the urethra 
The excretion of urea from the body and the maintenance of
water balance, as described above, are the main functions of
the kidney. However, the kidneys have other roles in
keeping conditions in the body stable i.e. in maintaining
homeostasis. These include:
A. controlling the concentration of salt ions (Na+, K+, Cl-)
in the blood by adjusting how much is excreted or retained;
B. maintaining the correct acidity of the blood. Excess acid
is constantly being produced by the normal chemical
reactions in the body and the kidney eliminates this.
Normal urine consists of water (95%), urea,
salts (mostly sodium chloride) and pigments
(mostly from bile) that give it its characteristic
colour
 KIDNEY
To the naked eye kidneys seem simple enough organs. They
are covered by a fibrous coat or capsule and if cut in half
lengthways (longitudinally) two distinct regions can be seen
- an inner region or medulla and the outer cortex. A cavity
within the kidney called the pelvis collects the urine and
carries it to the ureter, which connects with the bladder
where the urine is stored temporarily. Rings of muscle
(sphincters) control the release of urine from the bladder
and the urine leaves the body through the urethra 
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
In biological terms sexual reproduction involves the union
of gametes - the sperm and the ovum - produced by two
parents. Each gamete is formed by meiosis. This means
each contains only half the chromosomes of the body cells
(haploid). Fertilization results in the joining of the male
and female gametes to form a zygote which contains the
full number of chromosomes (diploid). The zygote then
starts to divide by mitosis to form a new animal with all its
body cells containing chromosomes that are identical to
those of the original zygote.
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of a pair of

testes that produce sperm (or spermatozoa), ducts
that transport the sperm to the penis and glands that
add secretions to the sperm to make semen 
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of a pair of

testes that produce sperm (or spermatozoa), ducts
that transport the sperm to the penis and glands that
add secretions to the sperm to make semen 
 The Testes

The male reproductive system consists of a pair of

testes that produce sperm (or spermatozoa), ducts
that transport the sperm to the penis and glands that
add secretions to the sperm to make semen 
 The Testes
Sperm need temperatures between 2 to 10 degrees Centigrade
lower and then the body temperature to develop. This is the
reason why the testes are located in a bag of skin called
the scrotal sacs (or scrotum) that hangs below the body and
where the evaporation of secretions from special glands can
further reduce the temperature. In many animals (including
humans) the testes descend into the scrotal sacs at birth but in
some animals they do not descend until sexual maturity and in
others they only descend temporarily during the breeding
season. A mature animal in which one or both testes have not
descended is called a cryptorchid and is usually infertile.
 The Testes
The testes consist of a mass of coiled tubes
(the seminiferous or sperm producing tubules) in
which the sperm are formed by meiosis. Cells lying
between the seminiferous tubules produce the male
sex hormone testosterone.
When the sperm are mature they accumulate in
the collecting ducts and then pass to
the epididymis before moving to the sperm
duct or vas deferens.
 The Testes
The two sperm ducts join the urethra just
below the bladder, which passes through
the penis and transports both sperm and urine.
Ejaculation discharges the semen from the
erect penis. It is brought about by the
contraction of the epididymis, vas deferens,
prostate gland and urethra.
 SEMEN

Semen consists of 10% sperm and 90%

fluid and as sperm pass down the ducts
from testis to penis, (accessory) glands
add various secretion
 Accessory Glands
Seminal vesicles are important in rats, bulls, boars
and stallions but are absent in cats and dogs. When
present they produce secretions that make up much
of the volume of the semen, and transport and
provide nutrients for the sperm.
The prostate gland is important in dogs and
humans. It produces an alkaline secretion that
neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra and
female vagina.
 Accessory Glands
Cowper’s glands (bulbourethral glands) have
various functions in different species. The
secretions may lubricate, flush out urine or form a
gelatinous plug that traps the semen in the female
reproductive system after copulation and prevents
other males of the same species fertilizing an
already mated female. Cowper’s glands are absent
in bears and aquatic mammals
 The Penis
The penis consists of connective tissue with
numerous small blood spaces in it. These fill with
blood during sexual excitement causing erection.
Dogs, bears, seals, bats and rodents have a special
bone in the penis which helps maintain the erection
In some animals (e.g. the bull, ram and boar) the
penis has an “S” shaped bend that allows it to fold
up when not in use
 THE SEMEN
Sperm are made up of three parts: a head consisting
mainly of the nucleus, a midpiece containing many
mitochondria to provide the energy and a tail that
provides propulsion
 THE SEMEN
A single ejaculation may contain 2-3 hundred million sperm
but even in normal semen as many as 10% of these sperm
may be abnormal and infertile. Some may be dead while
others are inactive or deformed with double, giant or small
heads or tails that are coiled or absent altogether.
Sperm do not live forever. They have a definite life span
that varies from species to species. They survive for
between 20 days (guinea pig) to 60 days (bull) in the
epididymis but once ejaculated into the female tract they
only live from 12 to 48 hours.
 Artificial Insemination
In many species the male can be artificially stimulated to ejaculate
and the semen collected. It can then be diluted, stored and used
to inseminate females. For example bull semen can be diluted and
stored for up to 3 weeks at room temperature. If mixed with an
antifreeze solution and stored in “straws” in liquid nitrogen at minus
79oC it will keep for much longer. Unfortunately the semen of
chickens, stallions and boars can only be stored for up to 2 days
Since the lifespan of sperm in the female tract is so short and ova
only survive from 8 to 10 hours the timing of the artificial
insemination is critical. Successful conception depends upon
detecting the time that the animal is “on heat” and when ovulation
occurs.
 The Female Reproductive Organ
The female reproductive system consists of a
pair of ovaries that produce egg cells
or ova and fallopian tubes where fertilization
occurs and which carry the fertilized ovum to
the uterus. Growth of the fetus takes place
here. The cervix separates the uterus from
the vagina or birth canal, where the sperm are
deposited
The Female Reproductive Organ
 The Female Reproductive Organ
Ovaries are small oval organs situated in the abdominal
cavity just ventral to the kidneys. Most animals have a pair
of ovaries but in birds only the left one is functional to
reduce weight (see below).
The ovary consists of an inner region (medulla) and an
outer region (cortex) containing egg cells or ova. These are
formed in large numbers around the time of birth and start
to develop after the animal becomes sexually mature. A
cluster of cells called the follicle surrounds and nourishes
each ovum.
 The Ovarian Cycle
The ovarian cycle refers to the series of changes in the
ovary during which the follicle matures, the ovum is shed
and the corpus luteum develops (see diagram 13.7).
Numerous undeveloped ovarian follicles are present at birth
but they start to mature after sexual maturity. In animals
that normally have only one baby at a time only one ovum
will mature at once but in litter animals several will. The
mature follicle consists of outer cells that provide
nourishment. Inside this is a fluid-filled space that contains
the ovum.
 The Ovarian Cycle
A mature follicle can be quite large, ranging from a few
millimetres in small mammals to the size of a golf ball in
large animals. It bulges out from the surface of the ovary
before eventually rupturing to release the ovum into the
abdominal cavity. Once the ovum has been shed, a blood
clot forms in the empty follicle. This develops into a tissue
called thecorpus luteum that produces the
hormone progesterone (see diagram 13.9). If the animal
becomes pregnant the corpus luteum persists, but if there is
no pregnancy it degenerates and a new ovarian cycle
usually.
The Ovarian Cycle
The Estrous Cycle
The estrous cycle is the sequence of hormonal changes that
occurs through the ovarian cycle. These changes influence
the behaviour and body changes of the female.
The first hormone involved in the estrous cycle is follicle
stimulating hormone (F.S.H.), secreted by the anterior
pituitary gland. It stimulates the follicle to develop. As the
follicle matures the outer cells begin to secrete the
hormone estrogen and this stimulates the mammary glands
to develop. It also prepares the lining of the uterus to
receive a fertilised egg. Ovulation is initiated by a surge of
another hormone from the anterior pituitary, luteinising
hormone (L.H.).
This hormone also influences the development of
the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone, a
hormone that prepares the lining of the uterus for
the fertilised ovum and readies the mammary glands
for milk production. If no pregnancy takes place the
corpus luteum shrinks and the production of
progesterone decreases. This causes FSH to be
produced again and a new oestrous cycle begins.
 The Signs of Estrous Cycle
1. When on heat a bitch has a blood stained discharge from
the vulva that changes a little later to a straw coloured one
that attracts all the dogs in the neighbourhood.
2. Female cats “call” at night, roll and tread the carpet and
are generally restless but will “stand” firm when pressure is
placed on the pelvic region (this is the lordosis response).
3. A female rat shows the lordosis response when on heat. It
will “mount” other females and be more active than normal.
4. A cow mounts other cows (bulling), bellows, is restless
and has a discharge from the vulva.
 Fertilization and Implantation

Copulation deposits several hundred million sperm

in the vagina. They swim through the cervix and
uterus to the fallopian tubes moved along by whip-
like movements of their tails and contractions of the
uterus. During this journey the sperm undergo their
final phase of maturation so they are ready to
fertilise the ovum by the time they reach it in the
upper fallopian tube.
 Fertilisation and Implantation
High mortality means only a small proportion of those
deposited actually reach the ovum. The sperm attach to the
outer zona pellucida and enzymes secreted from a gland in
the head of the sperm dissolve this membrane so it can
enter. Once one sperm has entered, changes in the zona
pellucida prevent further sperm from penetrating. The
sperm loses its tail and the two nuclei fuse to form
a zygote with the full set of paired chromosomes restored.
Implantation involves the blastocyst attaching to, and in
some species, completely sinking into the wall of the uterus
 Pregnancy

As the embryo increases in size, the placenta, umbilical

cord and foetal membranes (often known collectively as
the placenta) develop to provide it with nutrients and
remove waste products (see diagram 13.12). In later stages
of development the embryo becomes known as a foetus.
Pregnancy
Pregnancy
 Gestation Period
The young of many animals (e.g. pigs, horses and
elephants) are born at an advanced state of development,
able to stand and even run to escape predators soon after
they are born. These animals have a relatively long
gestation period that varies with their size e.g. from 114
days in the pig to 640 days in the elephant.
In contrast, cats, dogs, mice, rabbits and higher primates are
relatively immature when born and totally dependent on
their parents for survival. Their gestation period is shorter
and varies from 25 days in the mouse to 31 days in rabbits
and 258 days in the gorilla.
 Gestation Period
The babies of marsupials are born at an extremely immature
stage and migrate to the pouch where they attach to a teat to
complete their development. Kangaroo joeys, for example,
are born 33 days after conception and opossums after only 8
days.
Labour
Labour involves waves of uterine contractions that press the
foetus against the cervix causing it to dilate. The foetus is
then pushed through the cervix and along the vagina before
being delivered. In the final stage of labour the placenta or
“afterbirth” is expelled.
 Signs Of Imminent Birth
1. The mammary glands enlarge and may secrete a
milky substance a few days before birth occurs.
2. The vulva may swell and produce thick mucus and
there is sometimes a visible change in the position of
the fetus.
3. Just before birth the mother often becomes restless,
lying down and getting up frequently. 4. Many animals
seek a secluded place where they may build a nest in
which to give birth.
 The Senses
The senses are often divided into two groups:

1. The general senses of touch, pressure, pain and

temperature that are distributed fairly evenly through
the skin. Some are found in muscles and within
joints.
2. The special senses which include the senses of
smell, taste, sight, hearing and balance. The special
sense organs may be quite complex in structure.
 The Senses
Receptors for touch, pressure, pain and temperature
are found in the skin. Receptors in the muscles,
tendons and joints inform the brain of limb position.

The olfactory organ in the nose responds to

chemicals in the air i.e. smell.
Taste buds on the tongue respond to a limited range
of chemicals dissolved in saliva.
 The Senses
The eyes are the organs of sight. Spherical eyeballs situated
in orbits in the skull have walls composed of 3 layers.
The tough outer sclera protects and holds the shape of the
eyeball. At the front it becomes visible as the white of the
eye and the transparent cornea that allows light to enter the
eye.
The middle layer is the choroid. In most animals it absorbs
stray light rays but in nocturnal animal it is reflective to
conserve light. At the front of the eye it becomes the iris
with muscles to control the size of the pupil and hence the
amount of light entering the eye.
 The Senses
The inner layer is the retina containing the light receptor
cells: the rods for black and white vision in dim light and
the cones for colour and detailed vision. Nerve impulses
generated by these cells leave the eye for the brain via
the optic nerve.
The lens (with the cornea) helps focus the light rays on the
retina. Muscles alter the shape of the lens to allow near and
far objects to be focussed.
Aqueous humour fills the space immediately behind the
cornea and keeps it in shape and vitreous humour, a
transparent jelly-like substance, fills the space behind the
lens allowing light rays to pass through to the retina.
 The Senses
The ear is the organ of hearing and balance.
The external pinna helps funnel sound waves into the
ear and locate the direction of the sound. The sound
waves travel down the external ear canal to
the eardrum ortympanic membrane causing it to
vibrate. This vibration is transferred to the auditory
ossicles of the middle ear which themselves transfer it to
the inner ear. Here receptors in the cochlea respond by
generating nerve impulses that travel to the brain via
the auditory (acoustic) nerve.
 The Senses

The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear with

the pharynx to equalise air pressure on either side of
the tympanic membrane.
The vestibular organ of the inner ear is concerned
with maintaining balance and posture. It consists of
the semicircular canals and the eotolith organs.
 References

1. https://
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Anatomy_and_Physiology
_of_Animals/The_Skeleton
2. https://
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Anatomy_and_Physiology
_of_Animals/Lymphatic_System