CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION

IN
DEVELOPMENT
Prepared by Sagar Sunuwar
 Conflict:
◦ Derived from the Latin for ‘to clash or engage in a fight’
◦ It is the social process in which individuals or group seeks their ends by directly challenging
the antagonist by violence or threat of violence.
◦ A situation in which two or more parties struggle to acquire the same scarce resources at the same time
 Types of Conflict
◦ On the basis of violence, conflicts are of two types.
1. Violent conflict  
2. Non-violent conflict
◦ On the basis of number of casualties Uppsala Conflict Data Project (UCDP) has
categorized armed conflicts into three different types.
1. Minor conflict: at least 25 battle related deaths per year
2. Intermediate conflicts: more than 25 and less than 1000 battle related deaths per
year.
3. War: 1000+ battle related deaths per year
◦ On the basis of forms conflicts are categorized into five different types by Christopher
Moore.
1. Structural conflict: Conflicts which are caused due to existing inequalities and
discriminations rooted in a social, economic or political structure which has resulted in
unequal distribution of resources. e.g.. disagreements in existing laws and constitution
2. Ideological/Theoretical conflicts: The cause of such conflicts is incompatible ideologies
and values which can be political, cultural, religious or whatsoever. Cold war was a result
of clash of communist and capitalist ideologies. Religious conflicts can be another good
example.
3. Relational conflict: Conflict caused by misunderstandings, misconceptions, lack of
communication, misinterpretation of the opponents etc. e.g.. the misconceptions about
WMDs caused Iraq War.
4. Data conflict: Caused by disagreement over published facts and datas. e.g.. Border
disputes.
Interest conflict: Caused by incompatible goals of the parties or differences in the
interests.
◦ On the basis of origin International Humanitarian Law (IHL) has divided conflicts into three
different categories.

1. International armed conflicts: Armed conflicts between two or more than two

countries. e.g.. India China war, India Pakistan War, US Vietnam war
2. Internationalized non-international armed conflicts: Interstate armed conflict where
another state helps the insurgent groups. Eg. Armed conflict inside Syria
3. Non-international armed conflicts: Interstate wars, e.g.. Civil war of Nepal
Causes of Conflict
1. Economic causes: Poverty, unemployment, natural resources, greed, Uneven development
2. Social/Cultural/Religious causes: ethnic differences, religious differences, social inequalities and
discriminations, values, culture, legal issues, social exploitation and exclusion
3. Political causes: differences in ideologies, legal issues, constitution, power, representation etc.
4. Psychological causes: stigma and stereotypes, embedded enemy images, attitude etc.
5. Environmental Causes: environmental degradation, global warming, pollution etc.
 Stages of Conflict:
• Latent Stage: Participants not yet aware of conflict.
• Perceived Stage: Participants aware a conflict exists.
• Felt Stage: Stress and anxiety.
• Manifest: Conflict is open and can be observed.
• Aftermath: Outcome of conflict, resolution or dissolution.
 Violence
◦Violence is "the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy".

◦ Types of Violence according to John Galtung:

a. Structural Violence
◦ It refers to a form of violence in which the social or state structure may harm people by preventing them
from meeting their basic needs. 
◦ It exists when some groups of people have more access to goods, resources, and opportunities than other
groups of people.
b. Cultural Violence:
It refers to aspects of a culture that can be used to justify or legitimize direct or structural violence,
According to Galtung Cultural violence makes direct and structural violence look or feel "right", or at least
not wrong. 
c. Direct Violence:
Direct violence can take many forms.
In its classic form, it involves the use of physical force, like killing or torture, rape and sexual
assault, and beatings.
It also involves use of verbal violence like use of verbal words.

◦According to Galtung’s Violence Triangle (1969), Cultural and Structural Violence cause Direct
Violence. Direct Violence reinforces Structural and Cultural violence. The roots of the direct
violence are structural and cultural violence.
◦Johan Galtung suggested to end the violence by 2 ways:
a. Socialism
b. Social and Economic Democracy
Greed vs Grievance
◦ It is a statistical model created by World Bank economist Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler.
◦ Greed: It is the argument which states that combatants in armed conflicts are motivated by a
desire to better their situation, and perform an informal cost-benefit analysis in examining if
the rewards of joining a rebellion are greater than not joining.
◦ Grievance: It is the argument that people rebel over issues of identity,
e.g. ethnicity, religion, social class, etc., rather than over economics.
Contd..
◦Conflicts started through greed are often seen in states with the following characteristics:
 Negative Economic Growth
 Systemic Poverty
 Absence of effective military or police apparatus
 Low education level
 High unemployed men
 dependence and extortion of natural resources
 donation from diasporas
◦ Conflicts started through Grievance are often seen in states with the following characteristics:
 ethnic or religious hatred
 political repression
 political exclusion 
 Inequality
Environmental Degradation and Conflict
◦ Environmental Degradation: Deterioration in the quality of natural resources due to human
activities and causes scarcity of resources.
◦ Conflict: Is the fight on achieving the scarce resources by both opponent parties.
◦ Environmental Degradation and Conflict has the cause and effect relationship.

Environmental
Conflict
Degradation
Mechanism of Relationship between Conflict and
Environmental Degradation
Population pressure & high resource consumption

Resource depletion

Resource scarcity

Resource competition

Armed conflict

Environmental Degradation
 Effects of Conflict in Environment
  
1. Formation of craters, erosion, and contamination of soils by bombs, toxic missiles, and
military vehicles
2. Land pollution due to latrines and garbage dumps to landmines and unexploded ordnance.
3.  Deforestation, and land degradation.
4.  Contamination of surface waters and groundwater.
5.  Atmospheric emissions and resulting air pollution from military equipment and vehicles.
6.  Direct and collateral killing of animals and plants and loss of habitat.
7.  Degradation and destruction of protected areas and biodiversity.
8.  Noise pollution from weapons and low-flying aircraft that can lead to long-term hearing
impairment in people and other animals.
Gender Dimension in Armed Conflict
◦  Armed Confilct: Political conflict in which armed combat involves the armed forces of at least
one state (seeking to gain control of all or part of the state), and in which at least 1,000
people have been killed by the fighting during the course of the conflict.
◦ Gender analysis in armed conflict highlights the differences between women and men in
terms of their gendered activities, their needs, their acquisition and control of resources and
their access to decision making processes in post-conflict situations.  
◦ During Conflict, men goes to war (gets wounded and killed) and women handles the
household.
Positive Aspects of Gender Dimension in
Armed Conflict
◦ Change in Gender ideologies
◦ Change in gender relation
◦ Increase in the Opportunity for women
◦ Several Cultural Restriction have been changed
◦ Womens’s involvement in national leadership, cash economy, head of household,
◦ Women get greater freedom of decision-making about marriage partners, and stronger legal
rights to property.
Negative Dimension:
◦ Women combatant and also sometimes, non-combatant women suffer from sexual violence,
rape, and unwanted pregnancy and abortion.
◦ Trafficking of girls increases
◦ After conflict, men loses the job and sometimes, women are replaced by the men in the jobs.
◦ Conflict causes disruptions in the delivery of services like education, health, etc. It is women
who are often deprived from services.
◦ Increase in the number of single women
◦ Difficulty in securing access to government compensation, basic rights and resources such as
land, public services, etc.
 Weak States and Insecurity Dilemma
◦ Weak States: It is used to define a state that is:
a. Security Gap: Weak in its core functions of providing security to its citizens
b. Capacity Gap: Weak in providing basic services to its citizens,
c. Legitimacy Gap: Weak in having legitimacy among its people
◦ Characteristics of Weak State:
 Inability to establish and maintain a monopoly of control over the instruments of violence.
 Weak states do not utilize skills in normal policy small land area,
 Small total population,
 Small total Gross National Product (GNP),
 A low level of military capabilities
 Serious problems in the nature of domestic threats.
 Contd..
 It is the core concept in the security studies which is applied to weak states without cohesive nationalism
with weak institutions capacities to secure peace and order with a pre-occupation of internal threats
rather than external ones and with legitimacy problems.
 The insecurity dilemma poses a approaching risk of violent domestic conflict in weak states.
 Insecurity Dilemma in Weak States:
1. Weak states have social cohesive society and sometimes the state lacks the support of some group
2. The state lacks effective institutional capacities to provide peace and order, as well as the conditions for
satisfactory physical existence, for the population.
3. The sense of threat that prevails is of internal threats to and from the regime power, rather than externally
motivated threats to the existence of the nation-state.
4. Less effective security for all or certain sectors of the population.
5. Increased vulnerability of the state and its people to influence, intervention, and control by outside
actors, be they often states, communal groups or multinational corporations.
Conflict Prevention:
◦ Definition: Combined set of tools, actions and approaches designed to prevent the onset of armed
conflict or its recurrence by tackling both the root causes of conflict and its immediate triggers.
◦Conflict Prevention includes:
 Monitoring and/or intervening to stabilize a potentially violent conflict before its outbreak by initiating
activities that address the root causes as well as the triggers of a dispute.
 Establishing mechanisms that detect early warning signs and record specific indicators that may help to
predict impending violence.
 Using planned coordination to prevent the creation of conflict when delivering humanitarian aid and in
the process of development.
 Institutionalizing the idea of preventing conflict at the local, regional, and international levels.
 Types of Conflict Prevention:
  Direct Prevention Structure Prevention
Definition Direct prevention refers to shorter-term initiatives Structural prevention refers to longer-term initiatives in a
that are put into place in a critical moment with the variety of sectors that aim to address root causes of
aim to have a direct de-escalating effect on tensions tension and violence.
or violence.

Objective Manage immediate crisis; avoid escalation and Tackle root causes of conflict, including
recurrence underdevelopment and related cleavages so as to
guarantee that crises do not emerge or recur in the future

Measures Early Warning Systems and Early Response; Development of inclusive political institutions; policies
Mediation and Facilitation; Preventive Diplomacy for Inclusive growth; sustainable development; natural
and Good Offices resource management; rule of law, justice, and citizen
security; good governance and strong institutions; social
policies

Time Horizon Short-term/Midterm: Mobilized when conflict Long-term: Mobilized when conflict drivers have been
occurrence, escalation identified
Early Warning:
◦ Definition : It is a set of procedures that is designed to predict the armed
conflict and aware the concerned authorities.
◦ Early warning consists of data collection, risk analysis, and providing
information with recommendations to targeted stakeholders
 Components of Early Warning:
Indicator Sign
Data which tells about changes in political and economic Factors that do not necessarily appear regularly, but whose appearance
conditions. indicates fundamental changes in a country's situation or the
deterioration of inter-group relations

It is long-term. It is short-term
Example: Example:
 Political issues  economic shocks or financial crises;
 Economic issues  destruction or desecration of religious sites;
 Social and cultural issues  a rise in "societal" intolerance and prejudice;
 Military and security issues  discrimination or legislation favoring one group over another;
 Sub-regional/geopolitical issues  government "clamp-downs(To clamp down on people or
 Judicial and legal issues activities means to take strong official action to stop or control
  them. )";
 destabilizing referenda or elections.
 an increase in numbers of demonstrations or rallies;
 foreign intervention;
 contagion; and
 an influx of  refugees
Conflict Analysis:
◦ Conflict analysis can be defined as the approaches used to find out the root causes of
conflict in order to find out the solution to resolve the conflict.
◦ According to international alert, conflict analysis is identification and position of values,
issues, interests, aims position and needs of conflicting parties.
◦ There are 4 different approaches to conflict analysis:
◦ 1. Basic Needs Approach
◦ 2. Conflict Dynamics Approach
◦ 3. Rational Calculation Approach
◦ 4. Triple R and Triple M Theory
Conflict Dynamics Approach
◦The basic assumption of conflict dynamics approach is that it takes two to conflict i.e. act of
one party causes reaction of others which ultimately causes violent conflict.
◦There are other dynamics which are:
a. Polarization (pushing actors into two camps)
b. Centralization (creating a central command),
c. Formation of institutions and assigning responsibilities and little insights (secrecy and
protection)
◦ According to this model conflict takes shape on its own by overcoming the actors and
pushing them into conflict.
◦ The dynamics of conflict removes all other possible peaceful actions and makes the
conflicting party blind to see any alternatives for resolution.
John Galtung’s Model:
◦ According to Galtung:
Attitude + Behavior + Contradiction = Conflict
◦ Galtung assumes any point of the triangle can be the starting point of conflict and adds C or
contradiction is most frequent staring point of the conflict.
Attitude
◦Attitude: Can be cognitive, emotive or preparatory.

Cognitive Emotive Prepartory

Ascribing Negative Attributes To Hate Anger Jealousy And Dislike Provocations, Discriminations,
The Opposition, Stigmatization Threats, Special Laws, Invasion,
And Stereotype  Mass Media Propaganda
Behavior:
◦ Conflict behavior tends to deprive the opposition from something of value like life, property,
dignity, respect, freedom etc. Behavior can be of three types.
  Remuneration Normativity Violence

Positive Payments, Aid, Influence Respect, Appreciation, Non-violence

Agreement, Recognition, Praise

Negative Sanctions, Boycott, Strike, Non- Social Exclusion, Criticism, War, Threats of war, violation of
Cooperation Slander rights, imprisonment
 Contradiction:
Value Conflict Rank Conflict Goal Conflict Interest Conflict Complexity

Disagreement about what Agreement about Parties are subjectively Accurately present but Depends on number of
is of value something is of value but defining it and they are parties are not consciously actors and how deep it
  disagreement about how to conscious about their aware touches the life of actors
distribute it incompatible goals  
   
Need Based Model of Conflict
Analysis:
◦ The main assumption of basic needs approach is that violent conflicts are caused by the
deprivation of basic human needs of a population.
◦ It maintains the idea that needs are the mother root cause of any violent conflict in the world
rather than interests, greed or grievances.
◦ This assumption was first introduced by scholar Lewis A. Coser in his book “The function of
social conflict” (1976).
Argument of Lewis A. Coser:
◦He argues when the legitimate demands of minority such as dignity, political access or power
are not recognized by the majority, violence remains the only tool that can be used by minority
in order to draw attention of majority.
◦To avoid such violence, there should be multiple political passages which can continuously
communicate to all the groups irrespective of majority and minority and listen to their demands.
If such demands are not addressed in time then the eruption of conflict is unavoidable.
John Burton’s Argument:
◦He argues universal needs of human beings must be fulfilled in order to prevent or resolve
conflicts.
◦According to him, most salient need to understand a social conflict is identity, recognition,
security and personal development.
John Galtung’s Argument:
◦Another scholar Johan Galtung contributed to basic human need approach by identifying four different
basic needs of the people.
1. Survival needs: Protection from violence, safety.
2. Well being needs: Food, water, nutrition, movement, protection from illness
3. Identity needs: belongingness, happiness, affection, actualization, self-
expression
4. Freedom needs: Freedom from fear, freedom to choose occupation, way of
living 
◦ Galtung maintains that no need is more important and basic than the other. People can sacrifice one need
to obtain the other. e.g. survival need can be sacrificed to obtain identity need or freedom. If all of these
basic needs of people are not met on time then the violence continues.
Rational Calculation Approach:

◦The major assumption of rational calculation approach is that actors are rational and they can
rationally judge, make decisions, pursue strategies which initiate a chain of events and
ultimately lead to war.
◦Both conflict dynamic approach and basic needs approach try to identify the position of the
parties but rational calculation approach tries to identify interests of the conflicting parties.
Arguments of William Zartman:
◦ Ripe Moment for Conflict Intervention:
◦ In conflict the conflicting parties tend to reach to a position where the cost of continuing
conflict is much higher than the cost of peace and settlements.
◦ This is the point where both parties have already invested all their resources which makes
them difficult to continue any more.
◦ Parties easily agree on ceasefire so as to re-strengthen, regrouping and buying arms and
weapons.
◦ This stage can also be a point from where parties seek for solution to the problem and start to
resolve the conflict known as mutually appealing opportunities.
Arguments of Roger Fisher and William Ury:

◦According to them settlements based on negotiations can fairly be judged on the basis of three
criteria.
 It should produce wise agreement.
 It should improve the relationship between parties. 
 The process should be efficient.
Arguments of John Stedman:

◦John Stedman talks about the role of spoilers in the peace process.
◦He argues that to attain a sustainable peace or make peace agreements work the spoilers should
always be taken in account.
◦Spoilers in this process can be both external spoilers and spoilers inside the party.
◦If spoilers are included in the process than they may ruin and spoil all the process but if they
are excluded then they may manipulate the population and start another conflict.
Triple M Theory
◦ Triple M is also known as peace connection triangle which consists of three different phases of mutually
hurting stalemate (MHS), mutually enticed opportunities (MEO) and mutually obtained rewards (MOR).
Mutually Hurting Situation (MHS)

◦According to the Zartman, MHS is the situation where ripe for resolution exists.
◦At this point for both parties – the fear of continuing the war becomes greater than the fear of
compromise & peace.
◦Two or more parties after reaching at the Mutually Hurting Stalemate will enter into the process
of Dialogue, Negotiations and Mediation usually facilitated by third party.
◦Successful Dialogue, Negotiations and Mediation Process leads the conflict into:
 An attractive compromise solutions
 Reduce the fear of Peace
 Increase the trust between the conflicting actors
Mutually Enticing Opportunities (MEO)

◦Mutually Enticing Opportunities is the factor that provide an attractive outcome through which
one former aggressive can live together  
◦Factors that can create MEO are immediate material benefits, guaranteed rights of power,
property or position, the non-violent means, enhanced domestic legitimacy, enhanced
international prestige or massive inflow of donors fund etc.
◦Third Party are very important to drag the into MEO situation
◦ A Third Party has two principal tools: Leverage & Problem Solving abilities. 
◦Leverage mainly refers to RESOURCE corner of Triple R Triangle – offering security
guarantee to minimize the fear of peace. 
◦Problem Solving is directed to the RESOLVE corner ability to devise solutions in a sufficient
degree to meet the concerns, demands and goals of the parties.
◦The outcome of the MEO is signing of the Peace Agreements and implementation of such
agreements.
Mutually Obtained Rewards (MOR)

◦It is a concrete and manifest rewards, such as improvements in political participation, access to political
influences, more distributive justice or increased space for cultural identity etc.
◦There should be mutual acceptance of each other’s rights to exist among former enemies through
reconciliation and improvements in civil security and in rule of law.