Types of Diplomacy

Bi–Lateral Diplomacy
•
This form of diplomacy traces back its origin to the ancient practices of Greek City
States _the Romans.
•
It is the classical/oldest form characterized by exchange of envoys, messengers and
other government officials between two relatively independent states.

•
Today, such practices have been practiced more manifestly in the conduct of many
bilateral diplomatic relations between two states.

•
Such relations may extend from mere political nature to the promotion of socio-
cultural linkages between the governments and peoples of two states.
 Trilateral diplomacy
•
Refers to the conduct of political, economic, military, legal and socio-cultural
diplomatic relations amongst three independent states.
•
It evidently began to be conducted ever since the turn of the 19th C with the
emergence of modern European nation-states.
Examples:

The Holy Alliance was the oldest of such trilateral r/ns among Britain, Russia and Austro-Hungary
formed in 1815 with the end of Napoleonic wars in Europe.

Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia) against Triple Alliance (Germany, Austro-Hungary
and Turkey) immediately before the outbreak of W.W.I (1914-1918).

Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) against the Allies (Britain, France and the U.S).
 Multi–Lateral Diplomacy
•
The rise of multilateral diplomacy is symbolized by US President Woodrow Wilson’s
call for a League of Nations. It is conducted by more than three states.

Examples:

Ad hoc and per permanent conferences and treaties

world and regional international organizations like UN, AU, EU
 Leader to Leader Diplomacy
•
National leaders (Pres.ts, PMs, Kings, Queens or Emirs) regularly communicate
directly with one another due to an upsurge in modern transportation &
communication.
•
Beyond face-to-face encounters, presidential telephone calls to foreign leaders are a
common occurrence.
•
The levels of contacts might be high or low depending on the nature of leaders and
type of the situation.

E.g: G-8 countries (U.S.A, France, Britain, Italy, Canada, Japan, Australia and Russia) met annually.
 Track I Diplomacy
•
Official governmental diplomacy.

•
Communications from one government go directly to other government.

•
Undertaken by heads of state, state department or ministry of foreign
affairs officials.
 Track II diplomacy
•
Unofficial dialogue and problem solving activities.
•
Involve influential academic, religious, and NGO leaders and other civil society
bodies.
•
It utilizes individuals outside governments to carry out the task of conflict resolution.

Jimmy Carter, acting through the Carter Center, has negotiated several disputes, such as Eritrea’s
independence from Ethiopia.
•
Track-two diplomatic efforts are not always well received. Jimmy Carter’s eleventh-hour
dash to meet North Korea’s Kim Il Sing in 1994 to discuss the latter’s nuclear buildup was
met by questions such as: Was the U.S. government being preempted? For whom did Carter
speak?
•
Private individuals have played linkage roles between different countries. Armand Hammer,
a U.S. corporate executive, was a successful go-between for the Soviet Union and the United
States.
 Gunboat Diplomacy
•
Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of
military strength as a means of intimidation in order to influence
others.
 Economic Diplomacy
•
Is about enhancing cooperation with other states via increasing
trade & commercial r/ns.
•
Economic diplomacy avoids political differences, and places
greater emphasis on strengthening friendship through economic
cooperation.
•
It has assumed enormous significance since the onset of
globalization and gained popularity worldwide after the Cold War.

•
This was due to the fact that in the absence of bloc politics, at the
end of cold war, nations began to gave more attention to economic
diplomacy than a diplomacy dominated by political and military
 Public Diplomacy

is an increasingly popular diplomatic technique in a communication-
linked world.

It involves targeting both foreign publics and elites, attempting to create
an overall image that enhances a country’s ability to achieve its
diplomatic objectives.
For instance,
as secretary of state, Hillary Rodham Clinton traveled to more than 100 countries,


highlighting the role of women and promoting values, democracy, & HRs.
China’s public diplomacy has used Confucius Institutes to promote Chinese


language and culture worldwide.

•
It refers to a process of creating an overall international image that enhances a
state’s ability to achieve diplomatic success.
•
Instant global communications are breaking down rigidities and isolation. As a
result, these days diplomacy has failed to become the sole preserve of foreign
policy decision makers, diplomats and ambassadors.
•
Rather, public opinion is increasingly becoming influential in shaping foreign
policies of states particularly, the Developed Western Europe and North America.

•
Public diplomacy is the attempt by one state to present an image that will influence
public opinion in other states.
For instance, during the Iraq invasion of Kuwait in 1991, both sides used television as part of their
public diplomacy campaigns.
 Open Vs. Secret Diplomacy
•
Diplomacy, since its inception to the later part of the 19th C, was a clandestine affair.
So, for a very large period diplomatic activities were conducted secretly.

•
It was believed that since diplomacy is integrally linked with national interest, it would
be wise to keep it a secret for the benefit of the nation.

•
Examples of secret treaties (products of secret diplomacy):

The Berlin Congress Treaty of 1878

The ‘Entente Cordiale’ (Treaty of Friendship) b/n Britain and France in 1904 etc
•
The causes for secret diplomacy have been:

national interest and war-time exigencies

fear of adverse public reaction towards certain treaties or agreements.
•
From the first half of the 20th C, the demand for open diplomacy gained ground.
•
People started to denounce secret diplomacy mainly for two reasons:

the spread of democratic ideas and

the hatred that a nation incurred due to secret diplomacy.
•
Gradually the demand for treaties concluded in full public view, & ratified by the
Parliament gained popularity.
•
Woodrow Wilson, the former US President, was an ardent supporter of open
diplomacy. In his address before the US Congress in 1918, Wilson called for full
public knowledge about every treaty or agreement signed by governments.
•
The complexities created in international politics by secret diplomacy during the First
World War and before it, inspired people to support open diplomacy.
•
Open diplomacy has two features:

Rejection of the conclusion of secret treaties;

Conducting of diplomatic negotiations in full public glare.

•
However, open diplomacy is not realistically possible even in this age of globalization
and democracy.
•
No democratic country can afford to bring all diplomatic negotiations to light.
•
For national security purposes, democratic nations keep some areas of diplomacy
secret.

•
But nowadays treaties are not kept out of public knowledge as most of them require
the ratification of the national Parliament.
 Coercive Diplomacy
•
Coercive diplomacy employs threat or limited force to persuade an opponent to call
off or undo an encroachment.
•
It emphasizes the use of threats and the exemplary use of limited force to persuade
an opponent to back down.
•
In coercive diplomacy, one gives the opponent an opportunity to stop or back off
before employing force or escalating its use.
•
Coercive diplomacy offers the possibility of achieving one’s objective economically,
with little bloodshed, fewer political and psychological costs, and often with much
less risk of escalation than does traditional military strategy.
 Parliamentary Diplomacy
•
Another part of the modern diplomatic context is parliamentary diplomacy.

•
This includes debate and voting in IGOs as a supplement to negotiation and
compromise.

•
The maneuvering involved in parliamentary diplomacy was strongly evident in
the UN during the U.S. campaign to win Security Council approval for an
invasion of Iraq in 2003. That required the backing of 9 of the Council’s 15
members, including a “yes” vote or an abstention from each of the 5 veto-
wielding permanent members.
 General Rules of Effective Diplomacy

Be realistic. Have goals that match what you can & are willing to do to achieve
them.

Be careful about what you say.

Seek common ground. Focus first on common interests _ perhaps avoiding war, and
work toward achieving them. Avoid imposed agreements, since they are not durable

Be flexible. Generally be willing to compromise or to give way for an offsetting
concession on everything other than the most vital points.

Understand the other side. Try to find out what your opponents really want and
appreciate their perspective even if you do not agree with it.
There was good diplomatic advice in the Elvis Presley song, “Walk a Mile in My Shoes,” which urged
in part: “Before you abuse, criticize, and accuse / . . . walk a mile in my shoes.”

Appreciate the other side’s domestic constraints. Remember that they, like you,
have domestic political problems that push them to engage in two-level diplomacy.

Be patient. Being overly anxious may result in unwise concessions or to deadlines
that, if not met, can lead to an escalation of conflict.

Leave avenues of retreat open. it is usually wise to leave yourself and your
opponent an “out.”

Ultimatums, especially public ones, often lead to war. Whatever its other merits,
President Bush’s demand that in 2002 Saddam Hussein leave Iraq in 24 hours or
face war left no room for him to maneuver. War followed.
II. Economic Power
 1. Reduction or Exemption of Trade Barriers
Trade barriers: are practical policies and actions which states use to reduce or
constrain the negative impacts of free economic interchanges with other states
(primarily include Tariff and Non–tariff barriers).
A.Tariffs:
are the most familiar trade barriers. While these are generally low, they are
occasionally still either threatened or used. For instance, the U.S.A has threatened to
impose 100% tariffs on some Chinese goods if China doesn’t end the piracy of U.S.
intellectual property by Chinese manufacturers. High tariffs are constraints to the
conduct of free trade.
B. Non-tariff barriers (NTBs):
are less well known, more common, and important way of restricting trade. They are
sometimes reasonable regulations based on health, safety, or other considerations. It
includes quotas, technical restrictions, subsidization and dumping.
2. Technology Transfers and Subsidies

Refers a third world state’s acquisition of technology (knowledge, skills, methods,
designs and equipment) from foreign sources (particularly from developed North),
usually in conjunction with foreign direct investment(FDI) or similar business
operations.

Though insignificant or non existent these days, they were used as important policy
tools especially during the Cold war by the two rivals of the period.

Soviet Union targeted the client states of Eastern Europe and other parts of the world
through transfer of military technologies

U.S.A did much to states of Western Europe and the South–East Asia. E.g Western
Europe easily recovered following U.S. Marshall Plan _a policy targeting at the
economic restructuring of post W.W.II Europe through provision of economic aid and
assistance & technology transfers as well .
3. Foreign Aid/Assistance:
is a policy instrument that is employed by the developed North to help, at least in
principle, third world states to speed up economic development/meet basic
humanitarian needs.

It has different purposes such as humanitarian, political, or intended to create future
economic advantages for the giver.
4. Debt Relief
5. Coercive Economic Techniques: are mechanisms which a state threatens another
state with deprivation unless it submits.
It is about threatening to act or actually taking actions that punish the target state for
moves made in the direction not desired. It includes economic embargo and sanction.

Economic embargo: limited restrictions of economic relations particularly foreign
aid, trade and investment imposed by usually the developed states to impinge up on
the poor but disobedient states of the South.

Economic sanction: refers to an outright interruption or blockage of economic
interactions of a state vis–a–vis another state/s.
III. Psychological Technique: Propaganda

Psychological techniques are those mechanisms which are chosen to arouse mob
psychology, and hence acceptance as well as to positively or negatively influence the
minds of its own people or the peoples of other states to accept policies favorable to
themselves.
Propaganda: is an attempt primarily used to influence another state/s towards the
favor of its own interest.

refers to efforts that regimes of states use to convince their own people internally
and/or the people of foreign states to accept policies favorable to them.

It is an attempt primarily to influence another state/s through emotional techniques
(creating fear, doubt, sympathy, anger etc.) rather than logical discussion or
presentation of empirical evidence.

Simply, it is a systematic attempt to influence the minds and emotions of a target
group for a specific purpose. For propaganda radio, TV, print media and Internet are
used in modern times.

In ancient times, the ruling class used the technique of propaganda to influence
people to accept its programs and views.

But scientific propaganda, according to Joseph Frankel, started its journey in the
early 20th C.

Till the First World War (1914-18), the importance of propaganda in international
relations was negligible.

American and Western European scholars believe that during the inter-war period
(1919-39), the former Soviet Union and Nazi Germany used propaganda extensively
to garner support for their views and programs.

Propaganda has become a major instrument for promoting national interests.

Countries use propaganda techniques to suit their interests and very often they use it
in a negative way.

During the Cold War days, both the superpowers utilized their propaganda
machineries against each other in order to maintain their spheres of influence.

The US often identified the Soviet Union as an ‘evil empire’.

Also, in Post–Cold War, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, US identified the
states of Libya, Iraq, Iran and North Korea as the ‘axis of evil’—a term used by a
former president, George Bush.

Again, after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in its ‘War on Terror’, it identified Saddam
Hussein as an abettor of Osama bin Laden and Iraq as a potential threat to humanity,
being the possessor of weapons of mass destruction.

The developed countries of the North utilize the techniques of propaganda to carry
out their neo imperialist designs and impose a kind of cultural imperialism
through the control of the means of communications and flow of information to
the South.
 Activity
? Are there differences between propaganda and diplomacy
 Differences
Propaganda Diplomacy
Aimed at the people of other states It is a gov’t-to-gov’t affair
Is intensely self-centered Consider the interests of other
nations
Variety of techniques for projecting effective propaganda:
1.Telling the truth: may create public impression that the propagandist state is
justifiable than their own state or government.
2.Lies: sometimes called disinformation, can effectively convince the public in another
state and create a distorted image on the targeted state (and its government).
3.Half–truths(Half lies): this is a more common technique. It has three approaches:
First, it involves taking a kernel of truth and projecting it as a general statement.
Second, it includes presenting controversial information whose truth or false hood
has never been ascertained as a fact. The third approach is deliberate omission of
information.
Above all, effective propaganda which uses the most appropriate media and techniques
can increase the acceptability of the diplomatic, economic or military moves of a state
up on the public opinion of another state/s.
IV. Military Techniques
•
usually used as an last option when diplomacy (negotiation) fails.
•
The role of the military is very significant to the implementation of any foreign
policy. It is easy for a nation with a strong military to protect its national interest and
successfully implement its foreign policy.
Examples:

Britain, France, Germany, Holland, Spain, and Portugal before WWII were
superpowers which controlled the course of world politics.

After WWII, US and Soviet Union, took the lead as controllers of
international politics.

After the end of Cold War, the US has emerged as the only superpower .
•
This shows that only nations strong in military could always control international
politics
•
There are four ways of application of military power; military as a diplomatic back
drop, as a threatening force, through limited demonstration of violence and direct
action.
I. Military power as a Diplomatic back drop: Its very existence establishes a
diplomatic back up that may persuade potential opponents.
II. Military power as a threatening force: is extending deterrence or threatening to
use one’s forces, to deter an antagonistic state.
III. Military power through limited demonstration of Violence: is the actual use of
the military aimed at intimidating rather than defeating an opponent state
IV. Military power as a Direct Action: is the most violent of all options involving the
use of full scale force in an attempt to defeat on opponent.
Foreign Policy Orientations
FP behavior refers to the acting out of the decision

it consists of the actions taken to influence the behavior of an external actor or to
secure a benefit for the country itself.

By orientation, it mean:

a state’s general attitudes and commitments towards the external environment, its
fundamental strategy for accomplishing its domestic and external objectives.

A state`s orientation seldom revealed in any one decision, but result from a series
of cumulative decision made in an effort to adjust to the external circumstance and
domestic situation
 Isolationism
•
Low degree or no level of involvement in interactions like diplomatic contacts and
economic linkages.
•
Policy that try to isolate country from the affairs of others by declining to enter into:

Alliances

Foreign economic commitments

International agreements

Besides, attempts to entirely self-reliant

Factors for preferring isolationism:

The assumption that state security can be assured by reducing transaction with other
State/s or be relatively free from the threat of invasion, E.g powerful states does not
need to form alliances to defend themselves.

The existence of diffused multi-polar system

Geopolitical considerations E.g geographically remote or surrounded by a mountain,
ocean, desert are in a better position to pursue isolationism than land locked states.

The level of self-sufficiency E.g economically self-sufficient states which have
adequate goods and services, resources, and population to enable it to survive prefer
isolationism

The roles of leadership and

Domestic need to produce what the nation wants.

This orientation is primarily characterized by the principle of delinking also called
Autarky on the basis of which the state follows a close the door policy (partial or
complete) with the outside world.


Economic isolation: implies a state’s delinking in international economic interactions
in the areas of trade relations, commercial contacts and aid provision to and from
other state/s. This would in turn incur that state heavy economic costs.


Political isolationism: involves the loosening or total interruption of political
(diplomatic) and military linkages with another state/s. This makes that state
internationally an outcast or a “pariah state” with negligible regard and consideration
by the international community.
 Neutrality
•
Is a stance of formal/legal status of non-partisanship in world affairs recognized by other states
and the international law.
•
Neutrals may avoid some of the problems associated with alliances, particularly the generation
of potential enemies and counter alliances.
•
Lack of commitment by a state to provide its military and diplomatic support for the purpose
of another state.
•
States with this foreign policy orientation:

Do not form military alliance and help states in times of war.

May not also offer their territory for the passage of military goods of another state.
•
But they may:

Let the passage of non-military goods for humanitarian purposes.

Offer their good offices for the mediation and negotiation of other states
 Non-Alignment
•
It is an antipathy to the system of military alliances
•
It has no legal character as neutrality does.
•
It aims at keeping away, but it keeps away not from a particular issue/conflict but
from a continuing international situation.
•
FP is always subject to change with a change in gov’t. As non- alignment is an
attribute of FP, it is also subject to change .
•
When ever a change of gov’t takes place in a non-aligned country, the new gov’t has
to make a specific declaration to the effect whether it would abandon or continue to
pursue non-alignment.
•
It is one of the phenomena of international politics appeared on the international
scene after WWII.
•
Has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing states during cold war.
•
Most developing countries had a movement-Non Alignment Movement
(NAM) in which they called for a new foreign policy path/choice/ to be
followed disregarding both the West and East bloc politics and alliances.
•
Although that was practically impossible, NAM had noble agenda that called
for the South-south cooperation.

Similarities Differences
Do not give militarily to support other NA states may give d/t diplomatic support for
state/states blocs/alliances or states in a fight.
Do not form military alliance with other states Non-alignment is not a legal status and is not
recognized by other states and the international law

NA keeps away continuing international situation, but

neutrality aims at keeping away from a particular
issue/conflict.
 Alliance Formation

Is a strategy states opt for increasing their military & eco.c capability in their r/n with others

States enter into such cooperative security arrangements to protect themselves from a
common/perceived threat.

Alliances can be either formal or informal arrangements.

A formal alliance is publicly recognised through the signing of a treaty in which the
signatories promise to consider an attack on any one of them as equivalent to an attack on all
of them. E.g NATO

Informal alliances are much looser and less stable and rely, to a large extent, on the word of
the parties involved and on-going cooperation between them. They can also take the form of
secret agreements between leaders.
E.gs: joint military exercises, sharing of strategic information, promises of assistance during a
military crisis.

Economic alliances are in principle formed on the basis of states’ interest to achieve mutual economic
benefits and gains. They include Cartels (eg OPEC), Free Trade Area (e.g NAFTA), Common
Market in a form of Economic Community (e.g, COMESA) and Economic Integration (with
common economic policy and monetary system), like the one realized by the EEC-EU organizational
framework.

Military alliances are purely political, motivated by the desire to forge common military defense
system via setting up an org.n against another counter military bloc.

During the Cold War, for instance, the U.S.S.R organized a counter military bloc under the
Warsaw Pact in 1955 against the US led NATO established ever since 1949.

Religious Alliances: states with common official state religion organize themselves towards achieving
mutual economic, political and socio-cultural/religious cooperation amongst one another.
E.g: the Arab League & International Islamic Conference = union Islamic states
World Evangelical Alliance = religious union of Christian evangelical states
Council of Churches = religious union protestant states