Data Preprocessing_1
CSE402A
Data Mining
B. Tech. CSE, 2015
Course Leader:
Santhoshi Kumari
[Link]@[Link]
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Objectives
• At the end of this lecture, student will be able to
– Describe data preprocessing, cleaning and integration
– Apply and analyze various data preprocessing, cleaning and integration
methods
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Outline
• Data Preprocessing: An Overview
– Data Quality
– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
• Data Cleaning
• Data Integration
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Data Quality: Preprocess the Data
• Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view
– Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not
– Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …
– Consistency: some modified but some not, dangling, …
– Timeliness: timely update?
– Believability: how trustable the data are correct?
– Interpretability: how easily the data can be understood?
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Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
• Data cleaning
– Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers,
and resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
– Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data reduction
– Dimensionality reduction
– Numerosity reduction
– Data compression
• Data transformation and data discretization
– Normalization
– Concept hierarchy generation
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Data Cleaning
• Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data, e.g., instrument faulty,
human or computer error, transmission error
– incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of interest, or containing
only aggregate data
• e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)
– noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers
• e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)
– inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
• Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”
• Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”
• discrepancy between duplicate records
– Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)
• Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday?
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Incomplete (Missing) Data
• Data is not always available
– E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such
as customer income in sales data
• Missing data may be due to
– equipment malfunction
– inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
– data not entered due to misunderstanding
– certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry
– not register history or changes of the data
• Missing data may need to be inferred
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How to Handle Missing Data?
• Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (when doing
classification)—not effective when the % of missing values per attribute
varies considerably
• Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
• Fill in it automatically with
– a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
– the attribute mean
– the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class: smarter
– the most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian formula or
decision tree
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Noisy Data
• Noise: Random Error Or Variance In A Measured Variable
• Incorrect Attribute Values May Be Due To
– Faulty Data Collection Instruments
– Data Entry Problems
– Data Transmission Problems
– Technology Limitation
– Inconsistency In Naming Convention
• Other Data Problems Which Require Data Cleaning
– Duplicate Records
– Incomplete Data
– Inconsistent Data
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How to Handle Noisy Data?
• Binning
– first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins
– then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth
by bin boundaries, etc.
• Regression
– smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
• Clustering
– detect and remove outliers
• Combined computer and human inspection
– detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g., deal with
possible outliers)
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Data Cleaning as a Process
• Data discrepancy detection
– Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)
– Check field overloading
– Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule
– Use commercial tools
• Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g., postal code, spell-check) to
detect errors and make corrections
• Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and relationship to detect violators
(e.g., correlation and clustering to find outliers)
• Data migration and integration
– Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified
– ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to specify transformations
through a graphical user interface
• Integration of the two processes
– Iterative and interactive (e.g., Potter’s Wheels)
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Data Integration
• Data integration:
– Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
• Schema integration: e.g., [Link]-id [Link]-#
– Integrate metadata from different sources
• Entity identification problem:
– Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton = William
Clinton
• Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
– For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources are
different
– Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric vs. British
units
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Handling Redundancy in Data Integration
• Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple databases
– Object identification: The same attribute or object may have different
names in different databases
– Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in another table,
e.g., annual revenue
• Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by correlation analysis and
covariance analysis
• Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help reduce/avoid
redundancies and inconsistencies and improve mining speed and quality
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Correlation Analysis (Nominal Data)
• Χ2 (chi-square) test
(Observed Expected ) 2
2
Expected
• The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the variables are related
• The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value are those whose
actual count is very different from the expected count
• Correlation does not imply causality
– # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
– Both are causally linked to the third variable: population
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Chi-Square Calculation: An Example
Play chess Not play chess Sum (row)
Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450
Not like science fiction 50(210) 1000(840) 1050
Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500
• Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis are expected counts
calculated based on the data distribution in the two categories)
( 250 90) 2
(50 210) 2
( 200 360 ) 2
(1000 840 ) 2
2 507.93
90 210 360 840
• It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess are correlated in the
group
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Correlation Analysis (Numeric Data)
• Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s product moment coefficient)
n n
(ai A)(bi B ) ( ai bi ) n A B
rA, B i 1
i 1
(n 1) A B (n 1) A B
where n is the number of tuples, A and B are the respective means of A and B, σ A and
σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B, and Σ(aibi) is the sum of the AB
cross-product.
• If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s values increase as B’s). The
higher, the stronger correlation.
• rA,B = 0: independent; rAB < 0: negatively correlated
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Visually Evaluating Correlation
Scatter plots showing
the similarity from –1
to 1.
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Correlation (viewed as linear relationship)
a 'k (ak mean( A)) / std ( A)
b'k (bk mean( B )) / std ( B )
correlatio n( A, B) A' B'
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Covariance (Numeric Data)
• Covariance is similar to correlation
Correlation coefficient:
where n is the number of tuples, A and B are the respective mean or expected values of A and
B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B.
• Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger than their expected values.
• Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected value, B is likely to be
smaller than its expected value.
• Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
– Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are not independent. Only under some
additional assumptions (e.g., the data follow multivariate normal distributions) does a covariance of 0
imply independence
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Co-Variance: An Example
• It can be simplified in computation as
• Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one week: (2, 5), (3, 8), (5, 10), (4, 11),
(6, 14).
• Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends, will their prices rise or fall
together?
– E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4
– E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6
– Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4
• Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.
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Summary
• Data quality: accuracy, completeness, consistency, timeliness, believability,
interpretability
• Data cleaning: e.g. missing/noisy values, outliers
• Data integration from multiple sources:
– Entity identification problem
– Remove redundancies
– Detect inconsistencies
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Reference
a. Essential Reading
1. Class Notes
2. Bramer, M. (2007) Principles of Data Mining. Springer
b. Recommended Reading
1. Torgo, L. (2011) Data Mining with R: Learning with Case Studies. Chapman & Hall
2. Kecman, V. (2001) Learning and Soft Computing. The MIT Press
3. Witten, I. H., Frank, E., and Hall, M. A. (2011) Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning
Tools and Techniques, 3rd edn. Morgan Kaufmann
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