Recap of Session 10

Mechanics of chip formation

Mechanics of orthogonal metal cutting

Mechanics of oblique metal cutting

 Session 11

Machining forces

Merchant’s circle diagram

Advantages and limitation of merchant’s circle diagram

 CUTTING FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

We need to determine the cutting forces in turning for

 Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables
selection of the power source(s) during design of the machine tools
 Structural design of the machine – fixture – tool system
 Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters
( tool material and geometry, environment – cutting fluid) on cutting
forces
 Study of behaviour and machinability characterisation of the
work materials
 Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.
 In orthogonal cutting, the resultant force R applied to the chip
by tool lies in a plane normal to the tool cutting edge.
This force is usually determined in experimental work, from the
measurement of two orthogonal components: one in direction of
cutting (known as cutting force FC), the other normal to the
direction of cutting (known as thrust force Ft).
Figure 1 shows all components of forces in turning operation.
Significance of FC FD Ft

FC: called the main or major component as it is the largest in

magnitude. It is also called power component as it being acting
along and being multiplied by VC decides cutting power (FC.VC)
consumption.

FD: may not be that large in magnitude but is responsible for

causing dimensional inaccuracy and vibration.

Ft : It, even if larger than FD is least harmful and hence least

significant.
 In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the
orthogonal plane, πO, the cutting force (resultant) and its
components FC and FCN remain in the orthogonal plane.

 Fig. is schematically showing the forces acting on a piece of

continuous chip coming out from the shear zone at a constant
speed.

That chip is apparently in a state of equilibrium.

 Forces Acting on Chip
• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal
cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip
in orthogonal
cutting
 Resultant Forces

• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
• Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance:
– R' must be equal in magnitude to R
– R’ must be opposite in direction to R
– R’ must be collinear with R
 Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as

follows:
  tan 
 Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
• Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
• Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
– Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces in metal
cutting: (b) forces
acting on the tool
that can be
measured
Cutting forces
 Forces in Metal Cutting
• Equations can be derived to relate the forces
that cannot be measured to the forces that can
be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
• Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all
of which mean easier machining

Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding larger shear plane
area.
Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear
angle according to the Merchant equation
Power and Energy Relationships
• A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force;
and v = cutting speed
 Cutting Forces

(a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during two-dimensional cutting. Note that
the resultant force, R, must be collinear to balance the forces.
(b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting zone.
 Interactive session

1. What is the need of determining the cutting forces?

2. What is the significance of cutting force?

3.Define coefficient of friction?

4.How do you determine shear stress?

5.Write the equations for different forces in metal cutting?

 MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM

 The circle(s) drawn taking R or R’ as diameter which contains

all the force components concerned as intercepts.
The two circles with their forces are combined into one circle
having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram
called Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD).
Merchant’ s Circle
Diagram with cutting
forces
 


Merchant’s circular force diagram used to derive equations for

Fs , Fr , Ft , and N as functions of Fc, Fr , f, , and .
The significance of the forces displayed in the MCD are
1.Fs – shear force essentially required to produce or separate chip
from the parent body ( work) by shear.
2.Fn – inherently exists along Fs
3.F- Friction force at the chip tool interface
4.Fc – main force or power component acting in the direction of
cutting velocity
 The magnitude of Fs provides the yield shear strength of the

work material under the cutting condition.

The values of F and the ratio of F and N indicate interaction like
friction at the chip-tool interface.
The force components FC FD Ft are generally obtained by direct
measurement.

Again Fc helps in determining cutting power and specific energy

requirement.
The force components are also required to design the cutting
tool and the machine tool.
 The Merchant Equation
• Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation could occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle  which minimizes
energy, given by
 
  45  
2 2
• Derived by Eugene Merchant
• Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to
3-D machining
 What the Merchant Equation Tells
Us
 
  45  
2 2

• To increase shear plane angle

– Increase the rake angle
– Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
 PROCEDURE TO CONSTRUCT MERCHANT’S CIRCLE
DIAGRAM

 Suppose, in a simple turning under orthogonal condition given

speed, feed, depth of cut and tool geometry, the only two force
components FC Ft are known by experiment i.e., direct
measurement, then how can one determine the other relevant
forces and machining characteristics easily and quickly without
going into much equations and calculations but simply
constructing a circle-diagram. This can be done by taking the
following sequential steps
1. Determine Ft
2. Draw the tool and the chip in orthogonal plane with the given
value of γ0 as shown in the figure
3. Choose a suitable scale for representing FC Ft in cm.

4. Draw FC Ft along and normal to Vc as indicated in Figure

5. Draw the cutting force R as the resultant of FC Ft

6. Draw the circle taking R as diameter
7. Get F and N as intercepts in the circle by extending the tool rake
surface
8. Get the value of F and N
9. For determining Fs and Fn the value of shear angle has be
10. Draw the shear plane with the value of shear angle and then Fs
and Fn intercepts.

11. Get the value of apparent coefficient of friction at the chip tool
interface by simple ratio μ = F / N

12. Get the friction angle δ

13. Determine the dynamic yield strength of work material

shear stress = Shear force /shearing area
Shear stress is from MCD
Shear area = hc bc/ sin Ф
 Formula Sheet

• Shear Plane Angle Ф = tan-1 [(r cos α )/(1 – r sin α)]

 Shear Strain  = tan( - ) + cot 
 Forces in Cutting:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Forces Fc and Ft in terms of Fs:
Fc = Fs cos (cos ( 
Ft = Fs sin (cos ( 
 Merchant Relation:

 Shear Stress:
 = Fs/As
where As = to w/sin
 Cutting Power:
P = V Fc / 33,000 hp (V in ft /s and F c in lb)
P = V Fc / 1000 kW (V in m /s and Fc in N)
PG = Pc / E
 Machining example
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before
cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.
Solution (shear strain):
Determine r = 0.02/0.045 = 0.444
Determine shear plane angle from tan  = r cos /[1 – r sin]

tan  = 0.444 cos /[1 – 0.444 sin] =>  = 25.4°

Now calculate shear strain from  = tan(-) + cot 
 = tan(25.4 - 10) + cot 25.4 = 2.386 in/in answer!
 Interactive session

1. What is MCD?

2. What for MCD used?

3.How do you construct MCD?

 Advantages of Merchant’s diagram

1.Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several

other forces from a few known forces
2.Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength
can be easily determined
3. Equations relating the different forces can be easily derived.
 Limitations of use of Merchant’s Circle
diagram

1.MCD is valid only for orthogonal cutting

2.It is based on single shear plane theory
3.It gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction.
4.Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength
can be easily determined
 Summary of the Session 11

Machining forces

Merchant’s circle diagram

Advantages and limitation of merchant’s circle diagram