Design of Machine Element

Introduction class
Module 1: Introduction to Machine Design, Factor to be considered in design
process, material selection, direct stress, bending stress, torsional stress,
shock load
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Common Engineering materials:
Engineering materials

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals Non-metals

• Cast iron (2-4% carbon) • Aluminum • Timer
• Wrought iron (less than 0.08%) • Copper alloy • Leather
• Steel ( less than 1% carbon) • Brass ( Cu-Zn alloy) • Rubber
• Plastic
Mechanical properties of engineering materials:
 Strength:
Strength is defined as the ability of the material to resist, without rupture. It also
defined as capacity of an object.

 Elasticity:
Elasticity is defined as the ability of the material to regain its original shape
and size after the deformation, when the external forces are removed.

 Plasticity:
Plasticity is defined as the ability of the material to retain the deformation
produced under the load on a permanent basis.
Continued
 Hardness:
Hardness is the property of the material that enables it to resist permanent
deformation or penetration.

 Ductility:
Ductility is defined as the ability of a material to be drawn out or elongated an
appreciable extent before the sign of crack. ( % elongation > 15% )

 Malleability:
Special case of ductility, where it can be rolled into thin sheets.
Continued
 Brittleness:
Brittleness is the property of a material which shows negligible plastic
deformation before fracture takes place. Brittleness is the opposite to ductility.

 Resilience:
Resilience is a property of material that enables to resist shock and impact
by absorbing energy when deformed elastically.

 Toughness:
Toughness is a property which enables a material to be twisted, bend or
stretched under impact load or high stress before rupture. Absorb energy in the
plastic zone.
Continued

Fig. 1: Modulus of resilience Fig. 2: Modulus of toughness

Continued
 Stiffness/ Rigidity:
Stiffness or rigidity is defined as the ability of the material to resist deformation
under the action of an external load.

 Creep:
When a member subjected to constant load over a long period of time, it under
goes a slow permanent deformation and this is called as creep. Creep depend
on temperature.

Fig. 3: Mechanical behavior of metal at temperature 500 ̊F

Temperature effect on metal life:
 Temperature
 Ductility
 Strength

Fig. 4: Effect of temperature on ultimate and yield strength Low alloy steel
Commonly used material in machine design:

Steel Aluminium
High strength (S) Strength to weight ratio
High modulus of Elasticity (E) Corrosion resistant

High hardness High thermal conducting

Withstand high temperature
High electrical conducting

Heavy
Easy to machine, cast
Difficult to weld
Alloy give control over:
Machinability, ductility, corrosion
resistant Not as strong as Steel
Basic numbering system of SAE and AISI steels:

 AISI 1040 Steel

1. First number pair: Composition
2. Second number pair: Carbon content

10: Plain carbon

40: Carbon content ( 0.40%)

 AISI 4340 Steel

43: Chromium-nickel-Molybdenum
40: Carbon content (0.40%)
Overseas equivalent designations of steels:
Direct stress and strain:
 The internal resisting force per unit area of the component is called stress.

F
F F F t 
A
 t =tensile stress (N/ mm2)
c P = external force (N)
Fig. 5: Tensile Stress A = cross-sectional area(mm2)
1 MPa = 1 N/ mm2

F F
F

c
Fig. 6: Compressive Stress
Continued
 The strain is deformation per unit length



l ε = strain (mm/mm)
δ = elongation of the tension rod (mm)
l = original length of the rod (mm)
• According to Hook’s law: Stress is directly proportional to the strain within
elastic limit.
t 

 t  E
Where E is the constant of proportionality
known as Young’s modulus or modulus
of elasticity
FL
Elongation in tension ( ) 
AE For carbon steels, E = 210 GPa
For grey cast iron, E = 100 GPa
Shear stress and strain:
 When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the adjacent
planes with respect to each other, the resulting stresses on these planes are
called direct shear stresses.

F
F

(a)

F
Shear stress ( ) 
A
(b) (c)

Fig. 7: (a) Riveted Joint (b) Shear Deformation

(c) Shear Stress
Continued
 A plane rectangular element, cut from the component and subjected to shear
force.
 Shear stresses cause a distortion in the original right angles.
 The shear strain ( ) is defined as the change in the right angle of a shear
element.

Shear Stress ( )  G
 = shear strain (radians)
G= Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity

For carbon steels, G = 80 GPa

For grey cast iron, G = 40 GPa

E  2G (1   )

For carbon steels,  = 0.29

For grey cast iron,  = 0.21
Fig. 8: (a) Element Loaded in Pure Shear
(b) Shear Strain
Stresses due to bending:
 A straight beam subjected to a bending moment Mb is shown in Fig. 9. The
beam is subjected to a combination of tensile stress on one side of the
neutral axis and compressive stress on the other

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9: (a) Beam is subjected to pure bending(b) Distribution of Bending Stresses (c) Section at XX
Continued
M bY
 The bending stress at any fibre is given by ( b ) 
I

Where,  b= bending stress at a distance of y from the neutral axis (MPa)

Mb = applied bending moment (N-mm)
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis (mm4)
3
For a rectangular cross-section, I 
bd
12
For a circular cross-section, I   d
4

64

 Bending Equation: E Mb 
 
R I y
Where, E= modulus of Elasticity (MPa)
R= radius of curvature of neutral axis (mm)
Mb=applied bending moment (N-mm)
I=moment of inertia of the cross-section about neutral axis
Continued

Fig. 10: Sign Convention for Bending Moment

Stresses due to torsional moment:
 The internal stresses, which are induced to resist the action of twist, are
called torsional shear stresses.
Mtr
The torsional shear stress is given by ( )  J
Where,
t= torsional shear stress at the fibre (MPa)
Mt = applied torque (N-mm)
r = radial distance of the fibre from the axis of rotation(mm)
J = polar moment of inertia of the cross-section about the axis of
rotation (mm4)

M tl

JG

Fig. 11: Shaft Subjected to Torsional Moment

Fig. 12: Distribution of Torsional Shear Stresses

Continued
 Torsional equation: G  M t  
l J r
Where, G= modulus of Rigidity (MPa)
 = angle of twist (radian)
l= length of shaft (mm)
Mt=applied bending moment (N-mm)
J=Polar moment of inertia of the cross-section

=shear stress (MPa)

d4
The polar moment of inertia of a solid circular shaft of diameter d is given by J 
32
For a hollow circular cross-section  (d 4 0  d 4i )
J
32
Stresses due to impact /sudden load:
 Impact occurs when one object strikes another, such that large forces are
developed between the objects during a very short period of time.

 impact  2 normal
2
F  F  2 EFh
 impact     
A  A Al

(a)
Where, F= Impact load (N)
A= Area of cross-section on which impact happen(mm)
l= length of the object on which impact load applied (mm)
E=Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
h= distance or height from which impact load applied (mm)
(b)

Fig. 13: Example of impact load

Continued
 In other words we can say that impact load is the designed version of sudden
load
 Shock loads are transient loads of very high amplitude and short duration.

Fig. 13: Impact load varies for a shorter duration

Principal stresses:

 x  y   x  y 
    cos 2   xy sin 2
Fig. 14: (a) General three-dimensional stress. (b) Plane stress  2   2 

 and  are normal and shear stresses    y 

   x  sin 2   xy cos 2
associated with this plane  2 
Continued

2
x y   x  y 
    xy 
2
1    
 2   2 

2
  y    x  y 
  xy 
2
2   x     
 2   2 
(a) (b)
2
   y 
  xy 
2
 max    x   Fig. 15:(a) Two-Dimensional State of Stress (b) Stresses on Oblique Plane
 2 

2 xy
tan 2 
x  y
Design of Machine Element
Theory of failures
Module 1: Factor of safety, static failure, static loading, Failure theories

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Factor of safety (n):
 Safe guard to failure
 It give margin to design

 n <1 is not a safe design

 n >1 Always we have to take care when design any machine components.
Theory of failure:
 Failure: Every material has certain strength, expressed in terms of stress or
strain, beyond which it fractures or fails to carry the load.
 Failure Criterion: A criterion (standard/principle/norm) is used to hypothesize
(imagine/assume/theory/visualize) the failure.
 Failure Theory: A Theory behind a failure criterion.
Why we need failure theories?
 To design structural components/elements and calculate margin of safety.
 To guide in materials development.
 To determine weak and strong directions

Assumption of static failure:

 Homogeneous
 Isotropic
 Linear elastic

Static loading:
 Stationary force or couple
 Unchanging in direction, point of application, magnitude
Theory of failure:

Ductile Brittle

 Clear where plastic deformation begins (yield )  No clear plastic deformation begins (yield )
 Considerable ultimate elongation  Considerable ultimate elongation
 Failure: yield  Failure: breaking
 f  0.05  f  0.05
Failure modes:

Failure modes

Elastic deformation Permanent distortion (yield) Fracture

 Stretch, twist or  Plastic deformation at room  Sudden failure

bending temperature  Fatigue (progressive
 Buckling  Creep at elevated temperature fracture)
 Vibration  Yield strength is the important  Ultimate stress is the
design factor important design factor
Theories of failure:
 Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
 Maximum shear stress theory ( Guest’s and Tresca’s theory)
 Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory)
 Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)
 Maximum total strain energy theory ( Haigh’s theory)
Maximum Principal Stress theory (MPS) ( Rankine’s theory)
 MPS theory states that failure occurs whenever one of the three principal
stresses equals or exceeds the strength (yield or ultimate).

 If  1 ,  2 and  3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the

component and  1   2   3

 According to MPS theory  1  S yt

 1  Sut
S yt
 1
 For tensile stress n
S
 1  ut  1
S yt
n n
S yc
1 
 For compressive stress n
S
 1  uc
n
MPS( Rankine’s theory) region of safety:
 Maximum principal stress theory gives good predictions for brittle
materials
 Not recommended for ductile materials

Fig.1: Boundary for Maximum Principal Stress Theory

under Bi-axial Stresses
Maximum Shear Stress theory (MSS) ( Guest & Tresca’s theory)
 The theory states that the failure of a mechanical component occurs when
the maximum shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to
the maximum shear stress in the standard specimen of the tension test,
when yielding starts.

1
 max  (From Mohr circle)
2
S yt (Specimen starts yielding)
 max 
2

S ys  0.5S yt
S yt
 max 
Fig.2: (a) Stresses in Simple Tension Test 2
(b) Mohr’s Circle for Stresses
MSS ( Guest & Tresca’s theory) region of safety:
Shear stress maximum
 1   2 2 3  3  1  S yt
Max  max 12  ...or .. max 23  ...or ... max 31  
 2 2 2  2( n)

 1   2   S yt
 2   3   S yt
 3   1   S yt

For biaxial stress,  3 0

 1   2   S yt
Fig. 3: Boundary for Maximum Shear
Stress Theory under Bi-axial Stresses  2   S yt
 1   S yt
The maximum shear stress theory of failure is widely used by designers for predicting the failure of
components, which are made of ductile materials
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory):

 The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component occurs when
the strain energy of distortion per unit volume at any point in the component,
becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per unit volume in the
standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding starts.

2S yt 2    1   2     2   3     3   1 
2 2 2

S yt 2   12   2 2   32   1 2   2 3   3 1
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory) cont.

The total strain energy U of the cube is given by,

1 1 1
U   11   2 2   3 3      (1)
2 2 2

1 
1   1     2   3   
E
Fig. 4: Element with Tri-axial Stresses (b) Stress Components due 
1 
to Distortion of Element (c) Stress Components due to Change of
 2   2     3   1           (2)
Volume E 
1 
 3   3     2   1   
E 

1
U  12   2 2   32  2   1 2   2 3   3 1  
2E
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory) cont.

The total strain energy U is resolved into two components

U  U v  U d        (3)
 1   1d   v 

 2   2 d   v       (4)
 3   3d   v 

Since the components 1d , 2d and  3d do not change the volume of the cube

1d   2 d   3d  0      (5) 1d 

1 
 1d     2 d   3d   
E

1 
also  2d   2 d     3d   1d           (6)
E 
1 
 3d   3d     2 d   1d   
E 
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory) cont.
Substituting Eq. (6) in Eq. (5),

 1  2    1d   2d   3d   0        (7)
As, 1  2   0 so,  1d   2 d   3d  0      (8)

Now by putting Eq. (8) in Eq. (4)

1
 v    1   2   3         (9)
3

The strain energy Uv corresponding to the change of volume for the cube is given by,

  
U v  3  v v           (10)
 2 
1
v   v     v   v  
Also E
(1  2 ) v
v           (11)
E
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory) cont.

From expressions (10) and (11),

3(1  2  ) v 2
U v          (12)
2E
Substituting expression (9) in the Eq. (12),

(1  2  )( 1   2   3 ) 2
Uv     (13)
6E

Again, U  U d  U v

So, Ud  U Uv

1 (1  2 )( 1   2   3 ) 2
Ud   1   2   3  2   1 2   2 3   3 1   
2 2 2
       (14)
2E 6E

 1   
                        (15)
2 2 2
Ud              
 6E 
1 2 2 3 3 1 
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory) cont.

In simple tension test, when the specimen starts yielding,  1  S yt and  2   3  0

 1  
U 
Therefore, d   yt                 (16)
2 S 2

 6E 

From Equation (15) and (16), the criteria for failure for the distortion energy theory written as

2S yt    1   2     2   3     3   1 
2 2 2 2

S yt 2   12   2 2   32   1 2   2 3   3 1
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory) cont.
S yt 2   12   2 2   32   1 2   2 3   3 1

 For bi-axial stresses ( = 0),

S yt
n
  1
2
  1 2   2 2 

Fig. 4: Boundary for Distortion Energy

Theory under bi-axial Stresses
Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory) cont.

  From the figure, = - = and = 0

S yt 2   12   2 2   32   1 2   2 3   31

S yt  3 xy

S sy
S sy   0.577 S yt
3
Fig. 5: Element subjected to Pure Shear Stresses
(b) Mohr’s Circle for Shear Stresses
Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)
 The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component occurs when
the maximum strain at any point in the component, becomes equal to the
maximum strain in the standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding
starts.

Max  1 ,  2 and  3    yieldstrain

1
1   1     2   3             (1)
E
S yt
 yt                   (2)
En
1 S yt
 1     2   3   
E En
Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory) cont.
1 S yt
 1     2   3   
E En

 For bi-axial stress=0

S yt
 1   2 
n

Fig. 6: Boundary for Maximum strain theory

Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory)
 The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component occurs when
the total strain energy per unit volume at any point in the component,
becomes equal to the strain energy per unit volume in the standard specimen
of tension-test, when yielding starts.
1 1 1
Total strain energy=  1 1   2 2  3 3 2
2 2 2 1  S yt 
Total strain energy at yield=  
2E  n 

2
1 1 1  1  S yt 
  11   2 2  3 3    
2 2 2  2E  n 
Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory) cont.

1 1 1
Total strain energy=  11   2 2  3 3        (1)
2 2 2
1 
1   1     2   3   
E

1 
 2   2     3   1           (2)
E 
1 
 3   3     2   1   
E 

1
Total strain energy= U   12   2 2   32  2   1 2   2 3   3 1      (3)
2E S 
2
1 yt
             (4)
To get strain energy at yield= 2 E  n 


2
 S yt 
From Eq.(3) and (4)  12   2 2   32  2   1 2   2 3   3 1   
 n 
Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory) cont.

2
 S yt 
 12   2 2   32  2    1 2   2 3   3 1   
 n 
 For bi-axial stress=0

2
 S yt 
 1   2  2 ( 1 2 )   
2 2

 n 

Fig. 7: Boundary for maximum strain energy theory

Comaprison of all theory of failure
Design of Machine Element
Tutorial class for Failure theory
Module 1: Problem based on failure theories

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Theories of failure:
S yt
 Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)  1
n

 Maximum shear stress theory ( Guest’s and Tresca’s theory)  1   2 S yt


2 2
2
 Distortion energy theory (Vonmises’s theory)  S yt 
 1   2     2   3     3  1 
2 2 2
 2 
 n 
shear-energy theory, octahedral-shear-stress theory
S yt
 Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory) 1     2   3  
n

 Maximum total strain energy theory ( Haigh’s theory)

2
 S yt 
 12   2 2   32  2   1 2   2 3   3 1   
 n 
Comparison of all theory of failure:
S yt
 1
n

2
S 
 1   2     2   3     3  1 
2 2 2
 2  yt 
1   2 S yt  n 

2 2

S yt
1     2   3  
n

2
 S yt 
 12   2 2   32  2    1 2   2 3   3 1   
 n 
Problem 1:
 A cube of 5mm side is loaded as shown in Fig.1 below. Determine the
principal stresses , ,. Will the cube yield if the yield strength of the material
is 70MPa ? Use Von-mises theory

Fig:1
Problem 2:
 Amachine element is subjected to the following stresses = 60MPa, =45MPa,
=30MPa. Find factor of safety if it is made of C45 steel having yield stress as
35 MPa, using the following theories of failure.

(i) Maximum principal stress theory

(ii) Maximum shear stress theory
(iii) Shear energy theory
(iv) Maximum strain theory taking Poisson ratio as 0.3
Design of Machine Element
Fatigue strength
Module 2: Stress concentration factor, theoretical stress concentration factor,
causes of stress centration, reduction of stress concentration
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
  
Theoretical stress concentration factor ():
• Used
  to determine maximum stress in component with changes in geometry.
 Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the
irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross-
section.
  
Where to consider stress concentration factor ():

Machine Design Failure

Static Dynamic

Ductile Brittle Fatigue

   
Yes   Yes
No
Causes of stress concentration :
 Variation in Properties of Materials
 Load Application
 Abrupt Changes in Section
 Discontinuities in the Component
 Machining Scratches
Process for reduction of stress concentration :
 Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member

Fig. 4: Reduction of Stress Concentration due to V-notch: (a) Original Notch (b) Multiple Notches
(c) Drilled Holes (d) Removal of Undesirable Material
Process for reduction of stress concentration (contd.) :

 Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending

Fig. 5:Reduction of Stress Concentration due to Abrupt Change in Cross-section: (a) Original Component
(b) Fillet Radius (c) Undercutting (d) Addition of Notch
Process for reduction of stress concentration (contd.) :
 Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft

Fig. 6: Reduction of Stress Concentration in Shaft with Keyway: (a) Original Shaft (b) Drilled Holes
(c) Fillet Radius
Process for reduction of stress concentration (contd.) :
 Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members

Fig. 7: Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Components: (a) Original Component

(b) Undercutting (c) Reduction in Shank Diameter
Chart for the stress concentration factor :

Fig. 8: Stress Concentration Factor Fig. 9: Stress Concentration Factor Fig. 10: Stress Concentration Factor
(Rectangular Plate with Transverse (Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in (Flat Plate with Shoulder Fillet in
Hole in Tension or Compression) Tension) Tension or Compression)
Chart for the stress concentration factor :

Fig. 11: Stress Concentration Factor Fig. 12: Stress Concentration Factor
(Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Bending) (Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Torsion)
Theoretical stress concentration factor of elliptical
hole :
• Theoretical
  stress concentration factor

where,
a = half width (or semi-major axis) of the ellipse perpendicular to the direction
of the load
b = half width (or semi-minor axis) of the ellipse in the direction of load

A very sharp crack is indicated and the stress at

 b=0, = the edge of the crack becomes very large

circular hole in a flat plate, which is subjected

 a= b, =3 to tensile force, is 3

Fig. 13: Plate with elliptical hole

Problem1(stress concentration) :
A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN is shown in Fig.14. The plate
material is grey cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is 2.5. Determine the
thickness of the plate.

Fig. 14: Plate with a hole

Problem2(stress concentration) :
A non-rotating shaft supporting a load of 2.5 kN is shown in Fig.15. The shaft is
made of brittle material, with an ultimate tensile strength of 300 N/mm2. The
factor of safety is 3. Determine the dimensions of the shaft.

Fig. 15: Non rotating shaft

Design of Machine Element
Fatigue strength
Module 2: Fatigue strength, S-N curve, Endurance limit estimation (surface, size,
reliability, modifying factors)
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Static vs Fatigue failure:

Static Fatigue

 Load not varies with time  Load varies with time ( cyclic, alternative,
fluctuation, variable, repeated & dynamic)
 Constant load

 Static failure occurs because of deformation/  Fatigue failure happen suddenly & catastrophic
Yield

 Failure occurs at Yield strength  Failure occurs below Yield strength

 Static failure theory well understood  Complex and high variation

Different type of failure:
Machine Design Failure

Static Fatigue

𝜺
  𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟓  𝜺 𝒕 <𝟎 . 𝟎𝟓
Ductile Brittle S-N method

Theory of failure applicable Theory of failure applicable Stress life method applicable
(𝑺  ¿ ¿ 𝒚𝒕=𝑺 𝒚 𝒄 )¿   )
Mathematical model of cyclic stress:
𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥  
 
+ Repeated stress
+ Fully reversed stress
Stress
Stress

time +
-

𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥 =0
𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛     time
 
  ( 𝝈 𝒎𝒂 𝒙 − 𝝈 𝒎 𝒊𝒏 )
𝝈 𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝝈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 = 𝝈 𝒂 =
𝟐

  ( 𝝈 𝒎𝒂 𝒙 +𝝈 𝒎 𝒊𝒏 )
𝝈 𝒎 𝒆𝒂𝒏=𝝈 𝒎 𝒊𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 = 𝝈 𝒎 =
+ 𝟐
Stress
Fluctuating stress

time
-

𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛
 
Fatigue failure due to crack propagation:
 Stage I:Fatigue crack nucleation
 Stage II: Fatigue crack propagation
 Stage III: Fatigue unstable crack

Fig.1: Fatigue failure of a bolt Fig.2: Fatigue failure initiated at the end of the keyway
Fatigue failure Initiates:
 At discontinuities
 Changes in cross-sectional area, keys, holes (stress concentration)
 Rolling/sliding contact
 Scratches, tool marks, assembly/fabrication factor
 Material composition and processing : voids & inclusion
 Type of mechanical (axial, bending, torsion or combination) and thermo
mechanical fluctuation)
Rotating beam specimen ( 4 point bending test):

F F Fully reversed stress

M 𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
 

+
Stress

-
F F 𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛  
Fig.3: Rotating beam specimen  

Fig. 4: Shear and Fatigue Failure of Wire: (a) Shearing of Wire (b) Bending of Wire (c) Unbending of Wire
S-N curve:

F F F F

Fig. 4: Specimen for Fatigue Test

Fig.6: S-N diagram

Fig. 5: Rotating beam fatigue experiment set up

Endurance limit and fatigue life:

 The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum

amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can
sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure.

 The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard
specimen can complete during the test before the appearance of the first
fatigue crack.
Endurance limit-Approximation method:
•  

Where, = endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to

reversed bending stress ()
= endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component
subjected to reversed bending stress ()
= surface finish factor
= size factor
= reliability factor
= modifying factor to account for stress concentration.
   :
Approximation relation between

•  
( for steel)
( for cast iron and cast steel)
( for wrought aluminium alloy)
( For cast aluminium alloys)
Surface finish factor ():  
 
Shigley and Mischke have suggested an exponential equation
for the surface finish factor.

If > 1, set =1

The value of coefficients a and b are given below

Table 1: Values of coefficients a and b

Surface finish
Ground 1.58 -0.085
Machined or cold drown 4.51 -0.265
Hot-rolled 57.7 -0.718
Forged 272 -0.995
Fig. 7: Surface Finish Factor
Size factor (:  
Table 2: Values of size factor
 
Shigley and Mischke have suggested an exponential equation for
the size factor. For bending and torsion, the equation is in the
Diameter (d) following form
mm
1.0 For
0.85
For
0.75

For axial loading,

   factor (and ) :
Reliability factor and modifying

Modifying Factor to Account for Stress Concentration

Table 3: Reliability factor
1
𝑘  𝑑 =
Reliability R(%) 𝑘𝑓
50 1
90 0.897   The endurance limit () of a component subjected to
fluctuating torsional shear stresses is obtained from the
95 0.868 endurance limit in reversed bending ()
99 0.814
99.9 0.753 (torsional shear stress)
99.99 0.702 ( axial stress)
99.999 0.659
Reversed stresses- Design for Infinite life & Finite life:

Infinite life Finite life

  Endurance limit become the criterion of failure.  Endurance limit become the criterion of failure.

 Factor of safety (n) = or

or

Fig.7: Infinite life region Fig.8: Finite life region

Problem 1:
A
• forged
  steel bar, 50mm in diameter, is subjected to reverse bending stress of
250 . The bar is made of steel 40C8 ( Sut= 600 ). Calculate the endurance
strength of the bar for a reliability of 90%

Surface finish
Ground 1.58 -0.085
Machined or cold 4.51 -0.265 Reliability
drown R(%)
Hot-rolled
Hot-rolled 57.7
57.7 -0.718
-0.718 50 1
Forged 272 -0.995 90
90 0.897
0.897
Forged 272 -0.995
95
95 0.868
0.868
Diameter (d) 99 0.814
99 0.814
mm
99.9
99.9 0.753
0.753
1.0 99.99 0.702
99.99 0.702
0.85 99.999 0.659
99.999 0.659
0.75
Design of Machine Element
Fatigue strength
Module 2: Stress concentration factor in fatigue, notch sensitivity, fluctuating stress/
continued cyclic stress, Goodman and Soderberg equation
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Fatigue stress concentration  factor ( ):
•  

Where = theoretical stress concentration factor

= fatigue stress concentration factor
= notch sensitivity factor

=
=
Fatigue stress concentration  factor ( ) Contd.:
•  

 When the material has no sensitivity to notches (q=0) and =1

 When the material is fully sensitive to notches (q=1) and =

Fig. 1: Notch Sensitivity Charts (for Reversed Bending and Fig. 2: Notch Sensitivity Charts (for Reversed
Reversed Axial Stresses) Torsional Shear Stresses)
 Rotating beam specimen ( 4 point bending test):
F F

Fig.3: Rotating beam specimen

F F
𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
 
𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
 
Fully reversed stress
+ Fluctuating stress Stress Stress
Stress +

= +
time -
-
𝜎 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛  
𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛  
 
𝝈
  𝒎 𝝈  𝒂
 Fluctuating stress= mean stress + stress amplitude:

𝝈 𝒎 𝒂𝒙=𝟒𝟎
 
40
𝝈
 
𝒂

10 =30
𝝈
 
𝒎 =10
  +  
𝝈 = 10
 
𝒂

=30
𝝈 𝒎𝒊𝒏=− 𝟐𝟎  
  -20

 𝝈 𝒎  𝝈 𝒂

  =

  =
Goodman and Soderberg equation:
 𝑺 𝒆 C
 𝑺 𝒚𝒕
P
  𝒂)
Stress amplitude ( 𝝈

Yi
e ld
 𝑺 𝒆 li n
e O Q D
 𝑺 𝒚𝒕
So
d erb Similar triangle COD and PQD
erg Go
lin o dm
e an  
li ne

 𝑺 𝒚𝒕  𝑺 𝒖𝒕  𝑃𝑄 ¿  1− OQ
Mean stress ( 𝝈
  𝒎) 𝑂𝐷
𝐶𝑂
Fig.4: Goodman and Soderberg line
 𝜎 𝑎 + 𝜎 𝑚 =1 Soderberg equation
𝑆𝑒 𝑠 𝑦𝑡
When factor of safety (n) considered
Soderberg equation Goodman equation  𝜎 𝑎 + 𝜎 𝑚 =1 Goodman equation
𝑆𝑒 𝑠 𝑢𝑡
 𝜎 𝑎 + 𝜎 𝑚 = 1  𝜎 𝑎 + 𝜎 𝑚 = 1
𝑆 𝑒 𝑠 𝑦𝑡 𝑛 𝑆𝑒 𝑠 𝑢𝑡 𝑛
Problem 1:
A
• hot
  rolled steel rod under goes axial cyclic loading and nominal stresses =14
to =70 have been calculated, The rod has a hole in the centre of the rod with
=1.7 and = 0.9. The yield strength of the rod is given by = 310 and Ultimate
strength of the rod is = 565 . Endurance limit is = 138 . Using Goodman criteria,
determine the FOS

𝝈 𝒎𝒂𝒙=70
 

𝝈 𝒎𝒊𝒏=𝟏𝟒
 

0
Fig.5:Steel rod specimen
Design of Machine Element
Mechanical springs
Module 3: Stresses and deflections of helical springs, Compression springs, extension
springs,
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Types of springs:
 Mechanical Springs can be classified into various types, here some of the
most widely used mechanical springs.

 Helical Spring (open coiled and closed coil)

 Torsion Spring

 Conical and volute Spring

 Laminated or leaf Spring

 Disc or Belleville Spring

 Special Purpose Spring

Helical springs:
 Helical spring is one type of spring which is made of wire coiled, form as a
helix shape. It is one of the most used mechanical spring.
 The cross-section of the wire by which Helical Spring is made can be circular,
rectangle or square in shape.
 Suspension of a motorcycle or a high-end railway coach, there you can see
helical springs.
 Helical springs are used for carrying, pulling or compressing of any loads. 

Fig.3: Helical spring

Helical open and close coil springs:
 As the name denotes open coil, that means the distance between two
consecutive turns is more (angle of helix > 10 degree). These springs are
used to resist compression. 
 Generally, open-coil helical springs are used in Automobile, Motorcycles
 In closed coil helical spring, the distance between each turn or coil is pretty
less, or you can say the pitch distance is too small (angle of the helix <10
degree ). 
 The stiffness of closed coil helical spring is generally higher than any other
spring, for this reason, it is used in heavy-duty applications. 

Fig.4: Open coil ad close coil

Advantages helical springs:
 It is easy to design and cheaper to manufacture.
 High durability.
 Good shock-absorbing ability.
 Reliability is high.

Disadvantages helical springs:

 Day by day its loose it shape and stability.
 Sometimes when the axial load of the spring is increased, it produce the
buckling phenomena.
 If spring is broken then it is hard to repair.
Terminology of helical springs:
Free length:
 Free length is defined as the axial length of
an unloaded helical compression spring.

Compressed length:
 Compressed length is defined as the axial
length of the spring, which is subjected to
maximum compressive force. In this case,
the spring is subjected to maximum
deflection δ.

Solid length:
 Solid length is defined as the axial length of
the spring which is so compressed that the
Fig. 5: Spring Length Terminology
adjacent coils touch each other. no further
compression is possible.
Terminology of helical springs continued:
•  
= wire diameter of spring (mm)
= inside diameter of spring coil (mm)
= outside diameter of spring coil (mm)
= mean coil diameter (mm)=

Fig. 6: Dimension of spring

 Spring Index (C):
The spring index is defined as the ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter.
Terminology of helical springs continued:

• Free
  length = compressed length + δ
= solid length + total axial gap + δ

[δ = axial deflection of the spring (mm)]

 Solid length =
[= total number of turns]
 Compressed Length
Total axial gap is usually taken as 15% of the maximum deflection.
It is assumed that there is a gap of 1 or 2 mm between adjacent coils
under maximum load condition
Total gap = ( – 1) ×Gap between adjacent coils
Terminology of helical springs continued:
• Pitch
  of the coil ():
Pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state of spring.

 Stiffness of the spring ():

The stiffness of the spring (k) is defined as the force required to produce
unit deflection. various names for stiffness of spring rate of spring, gradient
of spring, scale of spring or simply spring constant.
 Active coil:
Active coils are the coils in the spring which contribute to spring action,
support the external force and deflect under the action of force
Terminology of helical springs continued:
 Inactive coil:
A portion of the end coils, which is in contact with the seat, does not
contribute to spring action and are called inactive coils.
 Type of coil end:
Type of ends Number of active
turns (N)
Plain ends
Plain ends ()
Plain ends
(ground)
(ground)
Square ends ()
Square ends
Square ends ()
Square ends
(ground)
(ground)

Fig. 7: End Styles of Helical Compression Springs

Stress and deflection of helical springs:

τ 𝑇
τ 𝑇 τ τ 𝐹
 𝐹

Fig 7: (a) Axially loaded (tensile) helical spring Fig 8: (a) Axially loaded (compressive) helical
(b) free-body diagram showing that the wire is spring
subjected to a direct shear and a torsional (b) free-body diagram showing that the wire is
shear. subjected to a direct shear and a torsional
shear.
Stress of helical springs continued:
 Torsional shear stress ()==
=

Direct shear stress ()=

Maximum shear stress in the spring wire
=+

= + = (1+0.5 )
Fig 9: Stresses in Spring Wire:
(a) Pure Torsional Stress (b) Direct Shear Stress
(c) Combined Torsional, Direct and Curvature Shear = (1+)
Stresses
Stress of helical springs continued:
• Maximum
  shear stress in the spring wire(= (1+0.5 )
=(1+)
=()

The shear stress correction factor (Ks)=(1+0.5 )= (1+)

Curvature effect:
 The shear strain at the inside of the spring will be more than the shear strain
at the outside of the spring.
 Curvature of the wire causes a localized increase in stress on the inner
surface of the coil, which can be accounted for with a curvature factor.
 Hence, for a given wire diameter, a spring with smaller diameter will
experience more difference of shear strain between outside surface and
inside surface compared to its larger counter part.

The above phenomenon is termed as curvature effect.

So C ( ), Curvature effect ( )

Fig 9: Curvature effect

Curvature effect continued:
• According
  to Wahl the equation for resultant stress, which includes torsional
shear stress, direct shear stress and stress concentration due to curvature.

This equation is given by =K()

Where K=

 For static loading, the curvature factor is normally neglected because any
localized yielding leads to localized strain strengthening.
 For fatigue applications, the curvature factor should be included.
Deflection of helical springs:
• The
  angle of twist ( ) for the equivalent bar, illustrated in Fig. 11, is given by,
==
Where = angle of twist (radians)
= torsional moment (PD/2)
L = length of bar (πDN)
J = polar moment of inertia of bar (πd4/32)  
The axial deflection ‘’ of the spring, for small values of ,
G = modulus of rigidity is given by
=

=
F F

F
F
Fig. 10: (a) Helical Spring (b) Helical Spring-unbent Fig. 11: Deflection of spring
Design of helical springs:
• There
  are three objectives for the design of the helical spring
1. It should possess sufficient strength to withstand the external load.
2. It should have the required load-deflection characteristic.
3. It should not buckle under the external load
 To design a number of springs for a given application by changing the three
basic parameters (wire diameter, mean coil diameter and the number of active turns).
 In certain applications, there are space limitations.(the spring is to fit in a hole of
certain diameter) where the outside coil diameter () is restricted where the
minimum inside diameter () of the coil is specified
Design of helical springs continued:
• Wire
  diameter, mean coil diameter can calculated by the load-stress equation
=K()

 While the number of active coils calculated by the load-deflection equation

 =
Design of Machine Element
Mechanical springs
Module 3: Design procedure of helical springs

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Design step of helical springs:
 
•Step1: For the given application, estimate the maximum spring force (F) and
the corresponding required deflection () of the spring. In some cases, maximum
spring force (F) and stiffness (k), which is (F/ ), are specified.
Step2: Select a suitable spring material and find out ultimate tensile strength
(Sut) from the data. Calculate the permissible shear stress for the spring wire by
following relationship: = 0.30 Sut or 0.50 Sut
Step3: Assume a suitable value for the spring index (C).
For industrial applications, the spring index varies from 8 to 10. A spring
index of 8 is considered as a good value.
The spring index for springs in valves and clutches is 5. The spring index
should never be less than 3
Design step of helical springs continued:
  Calculate the Wahl factor (K) by the following equation:
•Step4:

Step5: Determine wire diameter (d)

 =()= ()

Step6:Determine mean coil diameter (D)

Design step of helical springs continued:
  Determine the number of active coils (N)
•Step7:
  =

Step8: Decide the style of ends for the spring depending upon the configuration
of the application.
Determine the number of inactive coils. Find total number of coils ()
= Active +Inactive

Step9: Determine the solid length of the spring by the following relationship:
Solid length = d (plain and ground)
Design step of helical springs continued:
Step10:Determine
•   the actual deflection of the spring ()

 =

Step11: When the spring is under the action of maximum load. The total axial
gap between coils is given by
Total gap = (– 1) × gap between two adjacent coils

(gap between adjacent coils of 0.5 to 2 mm )

Total gap =15% deflection
Design step of helical springs continued:
Step12:Determine
•   the free length of the spring

Free length = solid length + total gap +

Step13: Determine the pitch of the coil (p)

Step14: Determine the rate of spring/ spring constant/ stiffness of spring

Design step of helical springs continued:

 
•Step13: A helical compression spring that is too long compared to the mean
coil diameter, acts as a flexible column and may buckle at a comparatively low
axial force.
(Guide not required)

(Guide required)
Problem based on design helical springs:
Problem1:
•   It is required to design a helical compression spring subjected to a
maximum force of 1250 N. The deflection of the spring corresponding to the
maximum force should be approximately 30 mm. The spring index can be taken
as 6. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel wire. The ultimate
tensile strength and modulus of rigidity of the spring material are 1090 and 81
370 respectively. The permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be
taken as 50% of the ultimate tensile strength. Design the spring and calculate:
(i) wire diameter; (ii) mean coil diameter; (iii) number of active coils; (iv) total
number of coils; (v) free length of the spring; and (vi) pitch of the coil. Draw a
neat sketch of the spring showing various dimensions.
Design of Machine Element
Mechanical springs
Module 3: Problem based on helical springs

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Problem based on design helical springs continued:
Problem3:
•   It is required to design a helical compression spring for the valve
mechanism. The axial force acting on the spring is 300 N when the valve is
open and 150 N when the valve is closed. The length of the spring is 30 mm
when the valve is open and 35 mm when the valve is closed. The spring is
made of oil-hardened and tempered valve spring wire and the ultimate tensile
strength is 1370 . The permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be
taken as 30% of the ultimate tensile strength. The modulus of rigidity is 81 370 .
The spring is to be fitted over a valve rod and the minimum inside diameter of
the spring should be 20 mm. Design the spring and calculate
(i) wire diameter; (ii) mean coil diameter; (iii) number of active coils; (iv) total number of coils; (v) free
length of the spring; and (vi) pitch of the coil. Assume that the clearance between adjacent coils or clash
allowance is 15% of the deflection under the maximum load.
Design of Machine Element
Mechanical springs
Module 3: Springs for fatigue loading

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Mean force of helical springs:
• In
  many applications, the force acting on the spring is not constant but varies
in magnitude with time.
 The springs subjected to fluctuating stresses are designed on the basis of
two criteria: design for infinite life and design for finite life.
 A spring subjected to an external fluctuating force, which changes its
magnitude from to in the load cycle.
 Mean force () and the force amplitude ( ) are given by
Mean stress of helical springs:
• Mean
  stress () calculated from mean force ( ) by using shear stress
correction factor ( )

Where =
 Is the correction factor for direct shear stress and only applicable to mean
stress () only.
 For torsional stress amplitude (), it is necessary to also consider the effect of
stress concentration due to curvature in addition to direct shear stress.

Where =
Pulsating stress of helical springs:
• A
  spring is never subjected to a completely reversed load(changing its magnitude
from tension to compression and passing through zero with respect to time).
 A helical compression spring is subjected to purely compressive forces.
 On the other hand, a helical extension spring is subjected to purely tensile
forces.
 In general, the spring wires are subjected to pulsating shear stresses, which
vary from zero to () the endurance limit.

Fig. 1: Pulsating Stress Cycle

Fatigue diagram for springs design:
• The
  data regarding the experimental values of endurance strength of spring
wires is not readily available.
 The following relationships suggested by HJ Elmendorf can be used.
Cold drawn steel wires
=0.21
=0.42
Tempered steel wires
=0.22
=0.45
Fatigue diagram for springs design:
  A and B

 Line is called the line of failure.

 By consider the effect of the factor of safety,

constructed from the point D on the abscissa in such a
way that

 Any point on the line , such as X, represents a stress

situation with the same factor of safety.

 Line is called the design line

 is called load line

Fig. 2: Fatigue Diagram for Spring Design

Fatigue diagram for springs design:
  Considering similar triangles XFD and AEB

Where, FS = factor of safety; = mean shear stress;

=amplitude shear stress; = Yield shear stress ()
= Endurance shear stress (

Fig. 2: Fatigue Diagram for Spring Design

The above equation is used in the design of springs
subjected to fluctuating stresses.
Design of Machine Element
Mechanical springs
Module 3: Helical torsional springs, springs in series and parallel

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Torsional helical springs:
 A helical torsion spring is a device used to transmit the torque to a particular
component of a machine or mechanism.
 Application of helical springs: Used in door hinges, automobile starter, door
locks and Clipboards.
 The construction of the helical torsion spring is similar to that of compression
or extension springs, except that the ends are formed in such a way that the
spring is loaded by a torque about the axis of the coils

Fig.1: Helical spring Fig.2: Torsional helical spring

Torsional helical spring stresses:
• The
  helical torsion spring resists the bending moment () , which tends to wind
up the spring.
 The wire of the spring is subjected to bending stresses. Each individual
section of the torsion spring is, in effect, a portion of a curved beam.
 Using the curved beam theory, the bending stresses are given by

  𝑀𝑏 𝑦
𝜎 𝑏=𝐾 (
𝐼 )
Where K is the stress concentration factor due to curvature

 For a wire of circular cross-section,

 𝜎 =𝐾 32 𝑀 𝑏 𝑦
𝑏 ( 3
𝜋ⅆ ) Fig.3: Torsional helical spring
Torsional helical spring stresses continued:
• AM
  Wahl analytically derived the expressions for the stress concentration
factor K. They are given by,

Where Ki and K0 are stress concentration factors at the inner and outer fibres of the coil
respectively.
Torsional helical spring stresses continued:
• Bending
  moment () =

 The strain energy stored in the spring is given by

Fig.4: Angular displacement of spring

 The integration is to be carried over the entire length of the wire, i.e., from 0
to (). Therefore,
Torsional helical spring stresses continued:
•  
 The deflection in the direction of the force F is approximately (). Using
Castigliano’s theorem,

 Substituting (), we have

Torsional helical spring stresses continued:
• The
  stiffness of the helical torsion spring is defined as the bending moment
required to produce unit angular displacement.

 The spring index (C) is generally kept from 5 to 15.

Series and parallel spring combination:
 The objectives of series and parallel is to reduce the space, change the rate
of spring at certain deflection.

 The force acting on the spring

 The force acting on each combination is equal to the
spring is same and equal to sum of forces acting on
the external force individual springs
 The total deflection of the  The deflection of individual
spring combination is equal to springs is same and equal to
the sum of the deflections of the deflection of the
individual springs combination

Fig.5: Spring in series Fig.6: Spring in parallel

Series and parallel spring combination:

𝛿
  =𝛿 1 +𝛿 2
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝛿  = 𝛿  1= 𝛿  2=
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2

 𝐹 = 𝐹 + 𝐹
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘 2

Fig.5: Spring in series  1 = 1 + 1

𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2

  = 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
𝒌 𝐞𝐪
𝒌 𝟏+𝒌 𝟐
Table 1:Mechanical properties of patented and cold-drawn steel
wire
Design of Machine Element
Mechanical springs
Module 3: Leaf springs

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Introduction to leaf springs:
 Used in Suspension of cars, trucks  The extra full-length leaves are provided
and railway wagons to support the transverse shear force.
 It consists of a series of flat plates,
usually of semi-elliptical shape
 These Flat plates are called leaves
of the spring.
 The longest leaf at the top is called
master leaf.
 Two bolts are inserted through these
eyes to fix the leaf spring to the
automobile body.
 At the center, the leaf spring is
supported on the axle.
Fig.1: Semi elliptic leaf spring
Notations used in leaf spring:
•  = number of extra full-length leaves
 =number of graduated-length leaves including master leaf
 = total number of leaves
 = width of each leaf (mm)
 = thickness of each leaf (mm)
 = length of the cantilever or half the length of semi-elliptic spring (mm)
 = force applied at the end of the spring (N)
 = portion of P taken by the extra full-length leaves (N)
 = portion of P taken by the graduated-length leaves (N)
Full length and graduated leaves:
 Leaves are divided into two groups:
(i) Extra full-length leaves.
(ii) Master leaf along with graduated length leaves

Extra full-length leaves Graduated length leaves

Fig.2: Full length leaves Fig.3: Graduated length leaves

Full length leaves stress and deflection:
• Extra
  full-length leaves can be treated as a rectangular plate of thickness
()and uniform width ()

Fig.4: Full length leaves

Graduated length leaves stress and deflection:
• The
  group of graduated-length leaves along with the master leaf can be
treated as a triangular plate that the individual leaves are separated and the
master leaf placed at the centre.

Fig.5: Graduated length leaves

Deflection of leaf springs:
• Since
  the deflection of full-length leaves is equal to the deflection of
graduated- length leaves.
=

= -------(1)
Also + = --------------------(2)
=
=

Fig.5: Graduated length leaves

Deflection of leaf springs continued:
• Portion
  of P taken by full length leaves () and graduated length leaves () are
=
=
 Again we know that stresses in full length leaves
=

=
 Stresses in full-length leaves are 50% more than those in graduated-length
leaves .
Deflection of leaf springs continued:
• The
  deflection at the end of the graduated spring ()
=
=
=
 Multi-leaf springs are designed using load stress and load-deflection
equations.
 Nominal thickness (mm): 3.2, 4.5, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 16.
 Nominal width (mm): 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100 and 125.
 The factor of safety based on the yield strength is from 2 to 2.5 for the
automobile suspension.
Nipping of leaf springs:
 The stresses in extra full-length leaves  The initial gap C between the extra
are 50% more than the stresses in full-length leaf and the graduated-
graduated-length leaves. length leaf before the assembly, is
 We can equalize the stresses in different called a ‘nip’.
leaves by pre-stress the spring. The pre-  Such pre-stressing achieved by a
stressing is achieved by bending the difference in radii of curvature, is
leaves to different radii of curvature, known as ‘nipping’. Nipping is
before they are assembled with the common in automobile suspension
centre clip. springs.
 Full-length leaf is given a greater radius
of curvature than the adjacent leaf.
 The radius of curvature decreases with
shorter leaves.

Fig.5: Nipping of leaf spring

Nipping of leaf springs continued:
• Pre-stressing
  results in stress equalisation,

  𝟔 𝑷𝒇 𝑳
( 𝝈 𝒃 )𝒇 = 𝟐
(3)
𝒏𝒇 𝒃𝒕

  𝟔 𝑷𝒈 𝑳 (4)
( 𝝈 𝒃 )𝒈 = 𝟐
𝒏𝒈 𝒃 𝒕

 From Equation (3) and (4) =

(5)
again + =
(6)
Solving Equation (5) and (6), = , = and + =
Nipping of leaf springs continued:
•   (7)

Nip (C)= - = (8)

=
 The initial pre-load required to close the gap C between the extra full-length
leaves and graduated length.
Nipping of leaf springs continued:
•  
=

 Since the stresses are equal in all leaves, the above expression is written as
Design of Machine Element
Mechanical springs
Module 3: Spiral springs

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Introduction to spiral springs:

Fig.1: Spiral Spring Fig.2: Spiral Spring subjected to pure

bending
 It consists of a thin strip of rectangular cross-section, which is wound in the form
of spiral
 It is also called ‘power’ spring or ‘flat’ spiral spring.
 The inner end of this strip is fixed in the arbor at the centre.
 The outer end is clamped to a drum called ‘retaining’ drum.
Introduction to spiral springs continued:
 The spring is wound by rotating the arbor and during the winding process,
energy is stored in the spring.
 This energy is released as mechanical torque through the drum when it
gradually rotates and unwinds the spring.
 The strip is made of high quality steel.
 It is very thin which results in high flexibility and enables the arbor to have
large angular deflection.
 Spiral springs are widely used in watches, cameras, instruments and
automatic weapons. All types of toys are powered by this type of spring. They
are also used as starters for small engines.
Notation used in analysis of spiral spring:
•=  force induced at the outer end A due to winding of the arbor (N)
= distance of center of gravity of spiral from outer end (mm)
= thickness of strip (mm)
= width of strip perpendicular to plane of paper (mm)
= length of strip from outer end to inner end (mm)

 The outer end A of the spring is pulled by the force P.

The bending moment M due to the force P acting at a distance r is given by

 Point B is at a farthest distance from the line of action of the force P.

Therefore, bending moment is maximum at the point B. The maximum
bending moment () is given by
Stress induced in spiral spring:
  The maximum bending stress induced at the point B is given by

Where, and
Finally ,
 When both ends are clamped, the angle of rotation of the arbor () with
respect to the drum or the point A is given by,
Stress induced in spiral spring:
  The deflection () one end of the spring w.r.t the other is given by

 The strain energy (U) stored in the spring is given by,

Design of Machine Element
Riveted joints
Module 3: Classification of riveted joint, Failure of riveted joints, Strength and
efficiency of riveted joint
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Application of riveted joints:

Permanent joint Non-permanent joint

Also called as non-separable joint Also called as separable joint
Cannot be disassembled without damaging the Which permit disassembly and reassembly
assembled parts without damaging the assembled parts
Example: Riveted and welded joints Bolted joints, cotter joints and welded joints
Feasible only for thin plates (up to 25mm) Feasible only for thin plates (up to 25mm)

 Riveted joint used for making permanent joints in engineering applications like
boilers, pressure vessels, reservoirs, ships, trusses, frames and cranes.
Main parts of the rivet:
 A rivet consists of a cylindrical shank with a head at one end as shown in
Fig.2(I).
 This head is formed on the shank by an upsetting process in a machine
called an automatic header.
 The rivet is inserted in the holes of the parts being assembled as shown in
Fig. 2(II) and the head is firmly held against the back up bar.
 The protruding end of the shank is upset by hammer blows to form the
closing head. closing head is called the point

Fig.2:Formation of riveted joint

Type of riveting:
 In hand riveting, a die is placed on the protruding end of the shank and blows
are applied by a hammer.

 In machine riveting, the die is a part of the hammer, which is operated by

pneumatic, hydraulic or steam pressure.

 In hot riveting, the end of the rivet shank is heated to about 1000° to 1100°C
till it becomes bright red and then the blows are applied by a hammer.

 In cold riveting, there is no such heating.

Stress developed in hot and cold riveting:
 In hot riveting, when the rivet cools, the reduction in the length of the shank is
prevented by the heads resting against the connected members. Therefore,
the shank portion of the rivet is subjected to tensile stress while the
connected parts are compressed. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.
 In hot riveting, the shank of the rivet is subjected to tensile stress. In cold
riveting, the shank is mainly subjected to shear stress.
 Cold riveting is applicable for steel rivets up to 8 to 10 mm diameter and
rivets made of non-ferrous metals like brass, copper and aluminium alloys.
Hot riveting is carried out for steel rivets with diameters more than 10 mm.

Fig.3 (a) Tendency of Shank to Contract (b) Parts in Compression (c) Shank in Tension
Where we can use rivet joint ?
 Riveted joints are used where it is necessary to avoid the thermal effect.

 Riveted joints are used for metals with poor weldability ( like aluminum alloy).

 When the joint is made of heterogeneous materials.

 Rivet joints are good for resistance to vibrations and impact load.

 Riveted joints are used where thin plates are to be assembled.(popular

especially for aircraft structures ).
Advantages and Disadvantages riveted joint ?

Advantages Disadvantages
Riveted joint is more reliable in vibration and High consumption of metal (material cost more)
impact application (3.5 to 4 per cent of the weight of the structure)
Riveted joints can be used for non-ferrous The labour cost of riveted joints is more
metals
Riveted joints are free from such thermal after- Riveted assemblies have more weight
effects. Riveting process creates more noise
The quality of riveted joint can be easily
checked Rivets cause stress concentration
When the riveted joint is dismantled, the
connected components are less damaged
Type of rivet heads:
 The most popular type of rivet head is snap head/button head. (used in boilers,
pressure vessels and general engineering applications).

 Pan head rivets/cone head rivet are mainly used in boilers and ship hulls and
are ideally suited for corrosive atmosphere.
 Countersunk head rivets are used in structural work and ship hulls below the
waterline.
 The height of the protruding head
is less than that of snap head
rivet or pan head rivet
 Flat head rivets of small sizes are
called tinmen’s rivets. which are used
in light sheet metal.(buckets, steel boxes and AC ducts).
 A combination of countersunk head
and snap head called half countersunk head.
Fig.6: Types of rivet head
Different types of riveted lap joints:

Single-riveted lap joint Double-riveted lap joint Zig-zag riveted joint

 A chain riveted joint is a joint in which the rivets are arranged in such a way
that rivets in different rows are located opposite to each other.
 A zig-zag riveted joint is a joint in which the rivets are arranged in such a way
that every rivet in a row is located in the middle of the two rivets in the
adjacent row.
Different types of riveted butt joints:

Single-riveted Single-riveted
single-strap butt Joint double-strap butt Joint
 Depending upon the number of rows of rivets in each plate, the butt joints are
classified as single-row butt joint and double-row butt joint.
 Depending upon the number of straps, the butt joints are also classified into
single-strap butt joint and double-strap butt joint.
Different types of riveted butt joints:

Double-riveted Double-riveted
double-strap chain butt Joint double-strap zig-zag butt Joint
 Depending upon the number of rows of rivets in each plate, the butt joints are
classified as single-row butt joint and double-row butt joint.
 Depending upon the number of straps, the butt joints are also classified into
single-strap butt joint and double-strap butt joint.
Different types of riveted butt joints:

Diamond or Lozenge joint

 Rivets are arranged in a diamond shape. It is also called Lozenge joint.

 Typical diamond riveted joint used in construction work such as bridges,
trusses and cranes.
Terminology in riveted joints:
  Pitch () is the distance between two centres of the consecutive rivets in a
single row. (Usually, p = 3d)
 Transverse Pitch () also called back pitch or row pitch, is the distance
between two consecutive rows of rivets in the same plate.
 Diagonal Pitch () is the distance between the center of one rivet to the center
of the adjacent rivet located in the adjacent row.
 Margin/marginal pitch (m) is the distance between
the edge of the plate to the centerline of rivets in
the nearest row. (Usually, m = 1.5d).
 Rivets used in most of the applications are made of
mild steel.
 There are two varieties of steel rivet bars
hot rolled steel rivet bar and high-tensile steel rivet bar.
Fig.7: Different terms in rivet
Design consideration of riveted joints:
  The strength of riveted joint is defined as the force that the joint can
withstand without causing failure.
 Operating force acting on the joint Strength of strength of riveted joint, failure
occurs.
 Mainly three types of failure are considered. They are as follows:
(i) Shear failure of the rivet
(ii) Tensile failure of the plate (tearing of plate) between rivets
(iii) Crushing failure of the plate
Design consideration of riveted joints continued:
 (i) Shear strength of the rivet:

= shear resistance of rivet per pitch length (N)

= shank diameter of rivet (mm)
= permissible shear stress for rivet material

Fig.8: Shear Failure in Rivets

(for single shear)
n = number of rivets per pitch length.
(for double shear)
Design consideration of riveted joints continued:
 (ii) Tensile Strength of Plate between Rivets:
The width of plate between the two points A and B is (p – d/2 – d/2) or (p – d) and the thickness is t

= tensile resistance of plate per pitch length (N)

= shank diameter of rivet (mm)
= pitch of rivets (mm)
= thickness of plate (mm)
= permissible tensile stress of plate materia

Fig.8: Tensile Failure of Plate between Rivets

Design consideration of riveted joints continued:
 (iii)Crushing Strength of Plate :
 The failure results in elongating the rivet hole in the plate and loosening of the joint.

= crushing resistance of plate per pitch length (N)

= shank diameter of rivet (mm)
= thickness of plate (mm)
= number of rivets per pitch length.
= permissible compressive stress of plate material

Fig.9: Crushing Failure of Plate

Efficiency of riveted joint:
 The efficiency of the riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength of
riveted joint to the strength of unriveted solid plate.
 The strength of solid plate of width, equal to the pitch and thickness ,
subjected to tensile stress () is given by
Problem1:
  Two flat plates subjected to a tensile force P are connected together by
means of double-strap butt joint as shown in Fig. 10. The force P is 250 kN
and the width of the plate w is 200 mm. The rivets and plates are made of the
same steel and the permissible stresses in tension, compression and shear
are 70, 100 and 60 respectively. Calculate:(i) the diameter of the rivets; (ii)
the thickness of the plates; (iii) the dimensions of the seam, (p, pt and m) and
(iv) the efficiency of the joint.

Fig.10: Double strap plate

Problem2:

 Find the efficiency of the following riveted joints : 1. Single riveted lap joint of
6 mm plates with 20 mm diameter rivets having a pitch of 50 mm. 2. Double
riveted lap joint of 6 mm plates with 20 mm diameter rivets having a pitch of
65 mm. Permissible tensile stress in plate = 120 MPa Permissible shearing
stress in rivets = 90 MPa Permissible crushing stress in rivets = 180 MPa
Problem3:
 A double
riveted double cover butt joint in plates 20 mm thick is made with 25
mm diameter rivets at 100 mm pitch. The permissible stresses are : = 120 MPa;
= 100 MPa; = 150 MPa Find the efficiency of joint,
Design of Machine Element
Riveted joints
Module 3: Design of boiler joints: Longitudinal butt and circumferential lap joint

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Longitudinal butt joints for boiler shell:
 Cylindrical in shape and withstand internal pressure
 Identified by two dimensions
Length
Diameter
 Two types of joint
Longitudinal: Bears hoop stress: Butt Joint
Circumferential: Bears longitudinal stress: Lap joint

Fig.1: Longitudinal and circumferential joint

Difference between longitudinal and circumferential joints:

Longitudinal butt joint Circumferential lap joint

The plate of the boiler shell is bent to form the The circumferential joint is used to get the
ring and the two edges of the plate are joined required length of the boiler shell by
by a longitudinal butt joint connecting one ring to another.
Longitudinal joint is usually a double-strap one ring is kept overlapping over the adjacent
triple riveted butt joint. Joint makes a ring from ring and the two rings are joined by a
the steel plate circumferential lap joint.
Main parts of the rivet:
 Boilers and pressure vessels are cylindrical vessels.
 It can be proved that circumferential stress is twice the longitudinal stress.
 The longitudinal joint should be stronger than the circumferential joint
 Boiler joints are subjected to steam pressure. They should withstand the
steam pressure and also prevent leakage.
 Hence, great care must be exercised in their design and a high standard of
workmanship should be provided in their manufacture.

Fig.2: Longitudinal (circumferential stress) and circumferential (longitudinal stress) joint

Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell):
 If we want to design Boiler, then it must conform to the Indian Boiler
Regulation Act.
 At present, in a number of boiler
applications, riveted joints are
replaced by welded joints.

Fig.3:Triple-riveted Double-strap Butt Joint with Unequal Straps

Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 Thickness of Boiler Shell : The thickness of thin cylindrical shell subjected to
internal pressure is given by,
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 The plate of the cylinder wall is to be drilled for the rivets. The weaker section
passing through the rivet holes will not be as strong as the original solid plate
 The ratio of strength of the joint to the strength of the original solid plate is
expressed by the efficiency of the joint.

 Modifying to account for this weakening effect,

Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 The wall of the boiler shell is subjected to thinning due to corrosion, which
reduces the useful life of the shell.
 Provision has to be made by suitable increase in the wall thickness to
compensate for the thinning due to corrosion.
 Corrosion allowance (CA) is additional metal thickness over and above that
required to withstand internal pressure.
 A minimum corrosion allowance of 1.5 to 2 mm thickness is recommended
unless a protective lining is employed.
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
• The
  permissible tensile stress ()
Where = ultimate tensile strength of the plate material (N/mm2)
FS= factor of safety

 The factor of safety in boiler applications varies from 4.5 to 4.75. It is safe
practice to assume the factor of safety as 5.
 There are two popular grades of steel used for boiler shells and boiler rivets.
They are designated as Grade-St 37 BR and Grade-St 42 BR.
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
• Diameter
  of Rivet: Empirical relationships are suggested by design engineers
(1) When the thickness of plate is more than 8 mm, the rivet diameter is
calculated by following Unwin’s formula,

Where , d= diameter pf rivet (mm), t= thickness of the cylinder wall (mm)

(2) When the thickness of the plate is less than 8 mm, the diameter of rivet is
obtained by equating shear resistance of rivets to crushing resistance.
(3) In no case, should the diameter of the rivet be less than the plate
thickness.
 Alternatively, the diameter of the rivet hole can be obtained by following
approximate relationship: d’ = d + (1 to 2 mm)
Where, d’ = diameter of rivet hole
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
• Pitch
  of rivet (p): The pitch of the rivets in the outer row is maximum. The pitch
of the rivets in the middle and inner rows is one half of the pitch in outer row, that
is, (p/2).
 The pitch of the rivets in the outer row is obtained by equating the shear strength
of the rivets to the tensile strength of the plate.
 The tensile strength of the plate per pitch length in outer row of the rivets is given
by,
Pt = (p – d) t

 The inner and outer straps are of unequal width.

 The width of the inner strap is more than that
of the outer strap. Therefore, the rivets in the outer
row are subjected to single shear.
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 At the same time, the rivets in middle and inner rows are subjected to double
shear.
n1 = number of rivets subjected to single shear per pitch length
n2 = number of rivets subjected to double shear per pitch length
 When the straps have equal width, all rivets are subjected to double shear.

 For boiler joints, the shear resistance of one rivet in single shear is given by,

 the shear resistance of one rivet in

double shear is assumed as,
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 Shear resistance of rivets per pitch length
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 Shear resistance of rivets per pitch length

 (a) The pitch of the rivets should not be less than (2d) to enable the forming of
the rivet head.
 (b) In order to provide leak-proof joint, the maximum pitch is given by,
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 Transverse pitch ():
Case I In a lap or butt joint, in which there are more than one row of rivets and in
which there is an equal number of rivets in each row, the minimum distance
between the rows of rivets is given by,
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
  Transverse pitch ():
Case II In joints in which the number of rivets in the outer row is one-half of the
number of rivets in each of the inner rows and in which the inner rows are zigzag
riveted, the minimum distance between the outer row the and next row is given by,

The minimum distance between the rows in which there are full number of rivets is
given by,
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 Margin (m):
The distance between the centre of the rivet hole from the edge of the plate is
called margin. The minimum margin is given by,
m = 1.5d
 Thickness of straps ():
Design of longitudinal butt joint (Boiler shell)continued:
 Permissible stresses:
 According to Indian Boiler Regulations, the ultimate tensile strength and shear
strength of steel plates and rivets are 26 and 21 tons per square inch
respectively.
Problem1:
• A
  cylindrical steam pressure vessel of 1m inside diameter is subjected to an internal
pressure of 2.5 MPa. Design a double riveted, double-strap longitudinal butt joint for
the vessel. The straps are of equal width. The pitch of the rivets in the outer row
should be twice of the pitch of the rivets in the inner row. A zigzag pattern is used
for rivets in inner and outer rows. The efficiency of the riveted joint should be at
least 70%. The permissible tensile stress for the steel plate of the pressure vessel
is 80 . The permissible shear stress for the rivet material is 60 . Assume that the
rivets in double shear are 1.875 times stronger than in single shear and the joint do
not fail by crushing. Calculate:(i) thickness of the plate; (ii) diameter of the rivets;
(iii) pitch of the rivets; (iv) distance between inner and outer rows of the rivets; (v)
margin; (vi) thickness of the straps; and (vii)efficiency of the joint. Make a neat
sketch of the joint showing all calculated values of dimensions.
Fig. 1: Double-riveted Double-strap Butt Joint with
Equal Straps
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
 The circumferential lap joint is used to connect different cylindrical rings
together and form the boiler shell.
 In this case, one ring is kept overlapping over another ring and the two rings
are fastened by circumferential riveted joint.
 This type of joint is also used to connect the end cover to the cylindrical shell.

Fig.4: Single-riveted Circumferential Lap Joint

Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Thickness
  of Cylindrical Shell: The thickness of thin cylindrical shell is
obtained by the same equation that is used for longitudinal butt joint.

 Diameter of rivet: The diameter of the rivet is obtained by the same

procedure that is used for longitudinal butt joint.
(a) When the thickness of the plate is more than 8 mm, the rivet diameter is calculated by
Unwin’s formula. .
(b) When the thickness of the plate is less than 8 mm, the diameter of the rivet is
obtained by equating shear resistance of rivets to crushing resistance.
(c) In no case, should the diameter of the rivet be less than the plate thickness.
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Number
  of rivets: The rivets are subjected to single shear. The total shear
resistance of all rivets in the joint is given by,

Where, n= number of rivets in the joint.

External force acting on the joint is given by,

Where, = inner diameter of boiler shell (mm)

= internal steam pressure()
Equating above two equation, =

Fig.5: Single-riveted
Circumferential
Lap Joint
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Pitch
  of rivets: The pitch of the rivets p1 for a circumferential joint.
The tensile strength of plate per pitch length of rivets is given by,

The tensile strength of the solid plate per pitch length is given by,

So,

Where, = efficiency of circumferential joint (in fraction)

= pitch of circumferential joint (mm)
For intermediate joints, = 0.62
For end joints = 0.5η or 0.42 (whichever is less) Fig.6: Single-riveted
Circumferential
Lap Joint
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Number
  of rows: The number of rivets in one row is given by,

Where, = number of rivets in one row

The number of rows is given by,

Fig.6: Single-riveted
Circumferential
Lap Joint
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Transverse
  Pitch(): The transverse pitch () is the distance between two rows of
rivets.
 The overlap of the plate, denoted by a, is given by

 The number of rivets in each raw is equal.

(Zig-zag riveting)
( Chain riveting)
m=1.5d

Fig.7: Double-riveted
Circumferential
Lap Joint
Design of Machine Element
Riveted joints
Module 4: Problems based on circumferential lap joint

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
 The circumferential lap joint is used to connect different cylindrical rings
together and form the boiler shell.
 In this case, one ring is kept overlapping over another ring and the two rings
are fastened by circumferential riveted joint.
 This type of joint is also used to connect the end cover to the cylindrical shell.

Fig.4: Single-riveted Circumferential Lap Joint

Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Thickness
  of Cylindrical Shell: The thickness of thin cylindrical shell is
obtained by the same equation that is used for longitudinal butt joint.

 Diameter of rivet: The diameter of the rivet is obtained by the same

procedure that is used for longitudinal butt joint.
(a) When the thickness of the plate is more than 8 mm, the rivet diameter is calculated by
Unwin’s formula. .
(b) When the thickness of the plate is less than 8 mm, the diameter of the rivet is
obtained by equating shear resistance of rivets to crushing resistance.
(c) In no case, should the diameter of the rivet be less than the plate thickness.
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Number
  of rivets: The rivets are subjected to single shear. The total shear
resistance of all rivets in the joint is given by,

Where, n= number of rivets in the joint.

External force acting on the joint is given by,

Where, = inner diameter of boiler shell (mm)

= internal steam pressure()
Equating above two equation, =

Fig.5: Single-riveted
Circumferential
Lap Joint
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Pitch
  of rivets: The pitch of the rivets p1 for a circumferential joint.
The tensile strength of plate per pitch length of rivets is given by,

The tensile strength of the solid plate per pitch length is given by,

So,

Where, = efficiency of circumferential joint (in fraction)

= pitch of circumferential joint (mm)
For intermediate joints, = 0.62
For end joints = 0.5η or 0.42 (whichever is less) Fig.6: Single-riveted
Circumferential
Lap Joint
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Number
  of rows: The number of rivets in one row is given by,

Where, = number of rivets in one row

The number of rows is given by,

Fig.6: Single-riveted
Circumferential
Lap Joint
Design of circumferential lap joint (Boiler shell):
• Transverse
  Pitch ():
 The transverse pitch () is the distance between two rows of rivets.

The overlap of the plate, denoted by a, is given by,

a = + 2m
m= margin
The number of rivets in each row is equal

Fig.7: Double-riveted
Circumferential Lap Joint
Problem based on circumferentil lap joint:
 A cylindrical pressure vessel with 1 m inner diameter is subjected to internal
steam pressure of 1.5 MPa. The permissible stresses for the cylinder plate and
the rivets in tension, shear and compression are 80, 60 and 120 N/mm2
respectively. The efficiency of longitudinal joint can be taken as 80% for the
purpose of calculating the plate thickness. The efficiency of circumferential lap
joint should be at least 62%. Design the circumferential lap joint and calculate:
thickness of the plate; diameter of the rivets; number of rivets; pitch of rivets;
number of rows of rivets; and overlap of the plates.
Eccentrically loaded riveted joint:
 When the line of action of external force does not pass through the center of
gravity of these rivets, the joint is called an eccentrically loaded joint.
 The analysis of eccentrically loaded riveted joint is exactly identical to
eccentrically loaded bolted joint.

Fig.8: Eccentrically loaded riveted Joint

Eccentrically loaded riveted joint:

Fig.8: Eccentrically loaded riveted joint shear forces

Eccentrically loaded riveted joint:

 The primary and secondary shear forces

are vectorially added to get the resultant
shear force. They are denoted by P1, P2,
P3 and P4.
 The maximum loaded rivet becomes the
criterion of design. The rivets are
subjected to direct shear .

Fig.8: Eccentrically loaded riveted joint shear forces

Problem based on eccentrically loaded riveted joint:
• A
  bracket, attached to a vertical column by means of four identical rivets, is
subjected to an eccentric force of 25 kN as shown in below figure. Determine
the diameter of rivets, if the permissible shear stress is 60

Fig.8: Eccentrically loaded bracket

Problem based on eccentrically loaded riveted joint continued:
Problem based on riveted lap joint continued:
• A
  riveted joint, consisting of two identical rivets, is subjected to an eccentric
force of 15 kN as shown in below figure. Determine the diameter of rivets, if the
permissible shear stress is 60 .

Fig.9: Eccentrically loaded bracket

Caulking:
 Caulking and fullering processes are used to obtain such leakproof riveted
joints.
 The caulking process is applied to the edges of plates in a lap joint and the
edges of strap plate in a butt joint.
 These edges are first beveled to approximately 70° to 75° and the caulking
tool is hammered on the edge.
 The caulking is done either by hand hammer or by the use of pneumatic or
hydraulic hammer.
 The head of the rivet is also hammered down with the caulking tool.
 The blows of caulking tool closes the surface asperities and cracks on the
contacting surfaces between two plates and also between the rivet and the
plates, resulting in leakproof joint.

Fig.11: Caulking process

Fullering:
 Fullering is similar to the caulking process except for the shape of the tool.
 The width of the fullering tool is equal to the thickness of the plate being
hammered.
 The blows of the fullering tool result in simultaneous pressure on the entire
edge of the plate.

Fig.12: Fullering process

Design of Machine Element
Welded joints
Module 4: Introduction, Types of welded joint, Strength of transverse and parallel fillet weld
joints.
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Welded joints:
 Welding can be defined as a process of joining metallic parts by heating to
a suitable temperature with or without the application of pressure.
 Welded joint can be used as a substitute for a riveted joint and a welded
structure as an alternative method for casting or forging.

Fig.1: Welded Joint Fig.2: Welded Joint

Comparison of riveted and welded joints:
Riveted joint Welded joint
Riveted assembly results in heavy weight Welded assembly results in light weight
construction because of additional cover plate, construction because of there are no such
straps, large number of rivets additional parts
Cost is higher than that of welded joint Cost is lower than that of riveted joints
Alterations and additions is difficult Alterations and additions can be easily made
In the existing structure in the existing structure by welding
Riveted assemblies are less leakproof Welded assemblies are tight and leakproof
As compared with welded assemblies as compared with riveted assemblies
Production time is more Production time is less
Stress concentration problem exist No stress concentration problem
Projection of rivet head adversely affects the Welded structure has smooth and pleasant
appearance of the riveted structure appearance
Strength of riveted joint is less compared to Strength of welded joint is high compared to
welded joint riveted joint
Type of welded joints:
Different welding processes:
Strength of butt weld joint:
 The average tensile stress in the weld is given by

 
where, = tensile stress in the weld ()
= tensile force on the plates ()
= throat of the butt weld ()
= length of the weld ()

Equating the throat of the weld h to the plate thickness t Fig.3: Butt Weld in Tension
 The strength equation of butt joint can be written as

where, P = tensile force on plates (N)

= permissible tensile stress for the weld ()
t = thickness of the plate (mm)
= length of the weld ()
Strength of butt weld joint:
 Thestrength equation of butt joint can be modified and
rewritten in the following way,

where, P = tensile force on plates (N)

= permissible tensile stress for the weld ()
t = thickness of the plate (mm)
= length of the weld ()
= efficiency of the welded joint (in fraction) Fig.3: Butt Weld in Tension
Strength of parallel fillet weld joint:
 The size of the weld is specified by the leg length. The length of each of the two
equal sides is called a leg.
 As a rule, the leg length h is equal to the plate thickness. The throat is the
minimum cross-section of the weld located at 45° to the leg dimension.

t = h cos ( 45°)
t = 0.707 h

 Failure of the fillet weld occurs due to shear along the minimum cross-section at
the throat.
 The cross-sectional area at the throat is (tl) or (0.707 hl)
 The shear stress in the fillet weld is given by

Fig.4: Parallel Fillet Weld in Shear

Strength of parallel fillet weld joint continued:
• The
  shear stress in the fillet weld is given by

 Strength equation of the parallel fillet weld is written in the following form:

Where, = tensile force on plates (N)

= leg of the weld (mm)
= length of the weld (mm)
= permissible shear stress for the weld (N/mm2)
 Usually, there are two welds of equal length on two sides of the vertical plate.
In that case,
Strength of transverse fillet weld joint:
  The tensile stress in the transverse fillet weld is given by

 The strength equation of the transverse fillet weld is

written in the following form
Fig.5: Failure of Fillet Weld
 Usually, there are two welds of equal length on two sides of
the plate
Problem based on transverse fillet weld joint:
 Two steel plates, 120 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick, are joined together by
means of double transverse fillet welds as shown in below figure. The
maximum tensile stress for the plates and the welding material should not
exceed 110 N/mm2 . Find the required length of the weld, if the strength of
weld is equal to the strength of the plates.

Fig.6: Transverse fillet weld

Design of Machine Element
Welded joints
Module 4: Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded joints and Eccentric load welded
joints
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Unsymmetrical welded joints:
• The
  free body diagram of forces acting on the angle section with two welds is
shown in Fig1(b).
 Since the sum of horizontal forces is equal to zero.

 Since the moment of forces about the centre of

gravity is equal to zero.

 Now putting the value of and in the above equation

 Assuming total length of welds as l

Fig.2:Unsymmetrical welded Joint

Problem based on unsymmetrical welded joints:
 An ISA 200 X100 X10 angle is welded to a steel plate by means of fillet welds
as shown in below figure. The angle is subjected to a static force of 150 kN
and the permissible shear stress for the weld is 70 N/mm2. Determine the
lengths of weld at the top and bottom.

Fig.3:Unsymmetrical welded Joint

Unsymmetrical welded joints:
• Unsymmetrical
  sections such as angle or T are welded to the steel plates or
the beams.
 Angle section welded to a vertical beam
by means of two parallel fillet welds 1 and 2.
 G is the centre of gravity of the angle section.
 The external force acting on the joint passes
through G.
 Suppose P1 and P2 are the resisting
forces set up in the welds 1 and 2 respectively.

Fig.1:Unsymmetrical welded Joint

Problem based on unsymmetrical welded joints:
 An How much length of a 10 mm fillet weld is required to weld the long side
of an ISA angle 150 X 75 X 10 to a steel plate with side welds only? A static
load of 125 kN acts through the centre of gravity of the angle section which is
53.2 mm from the short side. The allowable load per mm of the weld length is
665 N.

Fig.4:Unsymmetrical welded Joint

Problem based on unsymmetrical welded joints:
 An How much length of a 10 mm fillet weld is required to weld the long side
of an ISA angle 150 X 75 X 10 to a steel plate with side welds only? A static
load of 125 kN acts through the centre of gravity of the angle section which is
53.2 mm from the short side. The allowable load per mm of the weld length is
665 N.

Fig.4:Unsymmetrical welded Joint

Eccentric load in the plane of welded joints:
 A bracket subjected to an eccentric force P and attached to the support by
means of two fillet welds W1 and W2.
 The first step is to determine the centre of gravity of welds, treating the weld
as a line. Suppose G is the centre of gravity of two welds.
 The eccentricity ( e) between the centre of gravity and the line of action of
force P.

Fig.5: Analysis of Eccentrically Loaded Welded Joint welded Joint

Stresses in eccentric loaded welded joints:
• The
  force P acting through the centre of gravity causes direct shear stress in
the welds called the primary shear stress.
 It is assumed that the primary shear stress is uniformly distributed over the
throat area of all welds.

Where A is the throat area of all welds

Fig.6: Primary and Secondary Shear Stresses

Stresses in eccentric loaded welded joints:
• The
  couple M causes torsional shear stresses in the throat area of welds.
They are called secondary shear stresses and given by.

Where r = distance of a point in the weld from G

J = polar moment of inertia of all welds about G

Fig.7: Secondary Shear Stresses

 The resultant shear stress at any point is obtained by vector addition of
primary and secondary shear stresses.
Stresses in eccentric loaded welded joints:
• The
  resultant shear stress at any point is obtained by vector addition of
primary and secondary shear stresses.
l=Weld length
t= throat.
G1 = The centre of gravity of the weld
G = The centre of gravity of a group of welds
 The moment of inertia of this weld about its centre of gravity G1 is given by,
and
 Since t is very small compared with l,
is negligible compared with .

Fig.8
Stresses in eccentric loaded welded joints:
• Therefore
 

Where A= throat area of the weld

JG1 = polar moment of inertia of the weld about its centre of gravity.
 The polar moment of inertia about an axis passing through G is determined
by the parallel axis theorem. Thus

where r1 is the distance between G and G1

 Where there are a number of welds, with polar moment of inertias J1, J2, J3,
…, etc., about the centre of gravity G, the resultant polar moment of inertia is
given by
Problem based on eccentric loaded welded joints:
 A welded connection, as shown in below figure is subjected to an eccentric
force of 7.5 kN. Determine the size of welds if the permissible shear stress
for the weld is 100 N/mm2. Assume static conditions.

Fig.9
Design of Machine Element
Welded joints
Module 4: Welded joint subjected to bending and torsional moment

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Welded joint subjected to bending moment:
• A
  cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is welded to a support by
means of two fillet welds W1 and W2.
 The eccentric force P can be replaced by an equal and similarly directed
force P acting through the plane of welds, along with a couple (Mb = P X e).
 The force P through the plane of welds
causes the primary shear stress .

Where A is the throat area of all welds.

 The moment causes bending stresses in
the welds.
Fig.1:Welded Joint Subjected to
Where I = moment of inertia of all welds based on the throat area Bending Moment
y = distance of the point in weld from the neutral-axis
Welded joint subjected to bending moment:
  The bending stresses are assumed to act normal to the throat area. The
resultant shear stress in the welds is given by.

 Using the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia

Fig.2:Welded of weld toW1
Joint Subjected about the
Bending
Fig.3:Welded Joint Subject to bending
X-axis is given by Moment
Welded joint subjected to bending moment:
  The throat dimension is very small compared to b or d

 Therefore, the first term in the above expression is neglected

 Since there are two such symmetrical welds.

Problem based on welded joint subjected to bending moment:
 A bracket is welded to the vertical column by means of two fillet welds as
shown in below figure. Determine the size of the welds, if the permissible
shear stress in the weld is limited to 70 N/mm2.

Fig.4:Welded Joint Subjected to Bending

Moment
Welded joint subjected to torsional moment:
• A  shaft of circular cross-section is welded to the plate by means of a
circumferential fillet.
 The shaft is subjected to torsional moment that induces torsional shear
stresses in the weld.
 Consider an elemental section in the weld
having an area dA.
 It is located at an angle with X-axis and subtends
an angle .
 The area of the elemental section is given by,
Fig.5:Welded Joint Subjected to
Torsional Moment

 The moment of inertia of the annular fillet weld is

obtained by integrating the above expression
Welded joint subjected to torsional moment:
 The moment of inertia of the annular fillet weld is obtained by integrating the
above expression

 By symmetry,
 The polar moment of inertia is given by,

 The torsional shear stress in the weld is given by,

Problem based on welded joint subjected to torsional moment:
 A circular shaft, 50 mm in diameter, is welded to the support by means of
circumferential fillet weld as shown in below figure. It is subjected to torsional
moment of 2500 N-m. Determine the size of the weld, if the permissible shear
stress in the weld is limited to 140 N/mm2.

Fig.6:Welded Joint Subjected to

Torsional Moment
Design of Machine Element
Threaded joint
Module 4: Classification of threaded joint, bolted joint stress analysis, Eccentric
loading bolted joint
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
What is threaded joint:
 Threaded joint is defined as a separable joint of two or more machine parts
that are held together by means of a threaded fastening such as a bolt and a
nut.
Advantages Disadvantages
The parts are held together by means of a large Stress concentration near the threaded portion
clamping force. Threaded joints are ‘reliable’ of the parts. Such areas are vulnerable to
joints. fatigue failure.
The mechanical advantage is more and force Threaded joints loosen when subjected to
required to tighten the joint is small. vibrations.
Threaded joints have small overall dimensions Threaded fasteners are considered as a major
resulting in compact construction. obstacle for efficient assembly
The threads are self-locking.
In manual assembly, the cost of tightening a
Threaded fasteners are economical to screw can be six to ten times the cost of the
manufacture screw itself
The parts joined together by threaded joints
can be detached as and when required.
Threaded fasteners are standardised and a
wide variety is available
Basic type of screw fastening:

 There are three parts of a threaded fastening, viz., a bolt or screw, a nut and a
washer.
 A bolt is a fastener with a head and straight threaded shank and intended to be
used with a nut to clamp two or more parts.
 The same bolt can be called screw when it is threaded into a tapped hole in one
of the parts and not into the nut.
Basic type of screw fastening continued:
 A bolt is held stationary, while torque is applied to the nut to make threaded
joint.
 For screw the torque is applied to the screw to turn it into matching threads in
one of the parts.
 A nut is a small symmetrical part, usually having hexagonal or square shape,
containing matching internal threads.

Fig.1: Bolt/ screw Fig.2: Nut

Terminology of screw threads:

Fig.3: Screw thread terminology

Bolted joint, Analysis:
 A bolted joint subjected to tensile force P. The cross-section at the core
diameter dc is the weakest section.
 The maximum tensile stress in the bolt at this cross-section is given by

 The height of the nut h can be determined by equating

the strength of the bolt in tension with the strength
in shear.

Fig.4:Welded Joint Subjected to Bending

Moment
Assumption considered for finding the nut height:
 Each turn of the thread in contact with the nut supports an equal amount of
load.
 There is no stress concentration in the threads.
 The yield strength in shear is equal to half of the yield strength in tension
(Ssy = 0.5Syt).
 Failure occurs in the threads of the bolt and not in the threads of the nut.
Stress analysis of bolted joint:
• The
  threads of the bolt in contact with the nut are sheared at the core
diameter .
 The shear area is equal to , where is the height of the nut. The strength of
the bolt in shear is given by.

 Equating the strength of the bolt in tension with the strength in shear
Stress analysis of bolted joint continued:
• Assuming
  (= 0.8d)

 Therefore, for standard coarse threads, the threads are equally strong in
failure by shear and failure by tension, if the height of the nut is
approximately 0.4 times of the nominal diameter of the bolt.
 The height of the standard hexagonal nut is (0.8d). Hence, the threads of the
bolt in the standard nut will not fail by shear.

 The size of the bolt is given by the nominal diameter d and pitch p
 In design calculations, many times the core diameter is determined.
Stress analysis of bolted joint continued:
• The
  size of the bolt is given by the nominal diameter d and pitch p
 In design calculations, many times the core diameter is determined.
Stress analysis of bolted joint continued:
• The
  size of the bolt is given by the nominal diameter d and pitch p
 In design calculations, many times the core diameter is determined.
Problem based on bolted joint:
Two plates are fastened by means of two bolts as shown in below figure. The
bolts are made of plain carbon steel 30C8 (Syt = 400 N/mm2) and the factor of
safety is 5. Determine the size of the bolts if 5kN.

Fig.5: Bolted joint

Eccentrically loaded bolted joint in shear:
• When
  the line of action of external force does not pass through the center of
gravity of these rivets, the joint is called an eccentrically loaded joint.
 The imaginary force P at the centre of gravity results in primary shear forces ,
……….etc., given by the following equation.

Fig.6: Eccentrically loaded bolted Joint

Eccentrically loaded bolted joint in shear:
• The
  moment about the centre of gravity results in secondary shear
forces , , ..., etc. If r1, r2, ..., etc., are the radial distances of the boltcentres
from the centre of gravity

Fig.7: Primary and secondary shear forces in bolted Joint

Problem based on eccentrically bolted joint:
 The structural connection shown in below figure is subjected to an eccentric
force P of 10 kN with an eccentricity of 500 mm from the CG of the bolts. The
centre distance between bolts 1 and 2 is 200 mm, and the centre distance
between bolts 1 and 3 is 150 mm. All the bolts are identical. The bolts are
made from plain carbon steel 30C8 (Syt = 400 N/mm2) and the factor of
safety is 2.5. Determine the size of the bolts.

The standard size of the bolts is M 20.

Fig.7: Eccentrically loaded bolted Joint

Design of Machine Element
Design of keys
Module 5: What is key, Function of key, Type of keys, Design of square and flat key

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
What is key :
 A key can be defined as a machine element which is used to connect the
transmission shaft to rotating machine elements like pulleys, gears, sprockets
or flywheels.

Fig.1: Key
Basic function of key:
 The primary function of the key is to transmit the torque from the shaft to the hub
of the mating element and vice versa.
 The secondary function of the key is to prevent relative rotational motion
between the shaft and the joined machine element like gear or pulley. In most of
the cases, the key also prevents axial motion between two elements, except in
case of feather key or splined connection.
 A recess or slot machined either on the shaft or
in the hub to accommodate the key is called keyway.
 The keyway is usually cut by a vertical or
horizontal milling cutter.

Fig.2: Key
Classification of key:
 Saddle key and sunk key
 Square key and flat key
 Taper key and parallel key
 Key with and without Gib-head
 The selection of the type of key for a given application depends upon the
following factors.
(i) power to be transmitted
(ii) tightness of fit;
(iii) stability of connection
(iv) cost.
Saddle keys:
 A saddle key is a key which fits in the keyway of the hub only.
 In this case, there is no keyway on the shaft.
 There are two types of saddle keys, namely, hollow and flat.

Sunk keys:
Fig.3: Saddle key
 A sunk key is a key in which half the thickness of the key fits into
the keyway on the shaft and the remaining half in the keyway on
the hub.
 Therefore, keyways are required both on the shaft as well as the
hub of the mating element.

Fig.4: Sunk key

Gib-head Taper Key:
 Tapered keys are often provided with Gib-head to facilitate removal.
 The projection of Gib-head is hazardous in rotating parts.

Feather Key: Fig.5: Gib-head taper key

 A feather key is a parallel key which is fixed either to the shaft or to the hub
and which permits relative axial movement between them.
 The feather key is a particular type of sunk key with uniform width and height.

Fig. 6: Feather Key

Woodruff key :
 A Woodruff key is a sunk key in the form of an almost semicircular disk of
uniform thickness.
 The Woodruff key can be used on tapered shaft because it can align by slight
rotation in the seat.
 The extra depth of key in the shaft prevents its tendency to slip over the
shaft.

Fig.7: Woodruff Key

Design of flat and square key:
 Although there are many types of keys, only square and flat keys are
extensively used in practice.
 A square key is a particular type of flat key, in which the height is equal to the
width of the cross-section.
 It is assumed that the force P is tangential to the shaft diameter.

Where, Mt = transmitted torque (N-mm)

d = shaft diameter (mm)
P = force on key (N)
 The design of square or flat key is based on two criteria,
viz., failure due to shear stress and
failure due to compressive stress
Fig.8: Forces acting on Key
Design of flat and square key:
 The shear failure will occur in the plane AB. The shear stress t in the plane
AB is

Where, b = width of key (mm)

l = length of key (mm)

Fig. 9: Failure of Key: Shear Failure

Design of flat and square key :
• The
  failure due to compressive stress will occur on surfaces AC or DB.
 The crushing area between shaft and key is shown.

Where, h = height of key (mm)

 The compressive stress in the key is given by
Design of flat and square key :

 For square key,

Problem based on key:
It is required to design a square key for fixing a gear on a shaft of 25 mm
diameter. The shaft is transmitting 15 kW power at 720 rpm to the gear. The key
is made of steel 50C4 (Syt = 460 N/mm2) and the factor of safety is 3. For key
material, the yield strength in compression can be assumed to be equal to the
yield strength in tension. Determine the dimensions of the key.
Design of Machine Element
Design of Cotter joint
Module 5: What is cotter joint, Stress analysis and design of cotter joint

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
What is cotter joint :
 A cotter joint is used to connect two co-axial rods, which are subjected to
either axial tensile force or axial compressive force.
 It is not used for connecting shafts that rotate and transmit torque.

Fig.1: Cotter joint

Free body diagram of cotter joint:
 The Assumptions are made for the purpose of stress analysis:
(i) The rods are subjected to axial tensile force.
(ii) The effect of stress concentration due to the slot is neglected.
(iii) The stresses due to initial tightening of the cotter are neglected.

Fig.2: Free body diagram of forces

Design of cotter joint:
  In order to design the cotter joint and find out the above dimensions, failures
in different parts and at different cross-sections are considered. Based on
each type of failure, one strength equation is written. Finally, these strength
equations are used to determine various dimensions of the cotter joint.

(i) Tensile Failure of Rods:

Each rod of diameter d is subjected to a tensile force P.
The tensile stress in the rod is given by,

Where is the permissible tensile stress for the rods.

(ii)Tensile failure of spigot :
 Figure 3. shows the weakest cross-section at XX of the spigot end, which is
subjected to tensile stress.

From the above equation, the diameter of spigot or

inner diameter of socket (d2) can be determined by
assuming a suitable value of t.
Fig.3: Tensile stress in spigot end
(iii) Tensile Failure of Socket
 Figure 4. shows the weakest section at YY of the socket end, which is
subjected to tensile stress. The area of this section is given by,

 From the above equation, the outside diameter of

socket () can be determined.

Fig. 4: Tensile stress in socket

(iv) Shear Failure of Cotter:
 The cotter is subjected to double shear as illustrated in Fig.5. The area of
each of the two planes that resist shearing failure is (bt). Therefore, shear
stress in the cotter is given by

Where t is permissible shear stress for the

cotter. From above equation, the mean width
of the cotter (b) can be determined.

Fig. 4: Shear Failure of Cotter

(v) Shear Failure of Spigot End:
• The
  spigot end is subjected to double shear as shown in Fig.5. The area of
each of the two planes that resist shear failure is (). Therefore, shear stress in
the spigot end is given by,

 Where is the permissible shear stress for the spigot.

From above equation, the dimension a can be
determined.

Fig. 5: Shear Failure of spigot end

(vi) Shear Failure of Socket End:
 The socket end is also subjected to double shear as shown in Fig.5. The
area of each of the two planes that resist shear failure is given by,

Therefore, shear stress in the socket end is given by,

From the above equation, the dimension c

can be determined.

Fig. 5: Shear Failure of socket end

(vii) Crushing Failure of Spigot End:
 As shown in Fig.6., the force P causes compressive stress on a narrow
rectangular area of thickness t and width d2 perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. The compressive stress is given by,

Fig. 6: Compressive Stress in spigot end

(viii) Crushing Failure of Socket End:
• As
  shown in Fig.7. the force P causes compressive stress on a narrow
rectangular area of thickness t. The other dimension of rectangle,
perpendicular to the plane of paper is (). Therefore, compressive stress in the
socket end is given by,

Fig. 7: Compressive Stress in spigot end

(ix) Bending Failure of Cotter:
 When the cotter is tight in the socket and spigot, it is subjected to shear
stresses.
 When it becomes loose, bending occurs.
  The force P between the cotter and spigot end is
assumed as uniformly distributed over the length .

 The force between the socket end and cotter is

assumed to be varying linearly from zero to maximum
with triangular distribution.

 The cotter is treated as beam as shown in Fig. 8(b). For

triangular distribution,

Fig. 8: Cotter Treated as Beam (a) Actual Distribution of Forces

(b) Simplified Diagram of Forces
(ix) Bending Failure of Cotter:

Fig. 8: Cotter Treated as Beam (a) Actual Distribution of Forces

(b) Simplified Diagram of Forces
Alternative method to find the dimension of Cotter joint:
 In some cases, the dimensions of a cotter joint are calculated by using
empirical relationships, without carrying out detail stress analysis. In such
cases, following standard proportions can be used.
Design procedure for cotter joint:
The basic procedure to calculate the dimensions of the cotter joint consists of
the following steps:
(i) Calculate the diameter of each rod by Eq.
(ii) Calculate the thickness of the cotter by the empirical relationship given in
Eq.
(iii) Calculate the diameter d2 of the spigot on the basis of tensile stress. From
Eq.

(iv) Calculate the outside diameter d1 of the socket on the basis of tensile
stress in the socket, from Eq.
Design procedure for cotter joint:
(v) The diameter of the spigot collar d3 and the diameter of the socket collar d4
are calculated by the following empirical relationships.

(vi) The dimensions a and c are calculated by the following empirical

relationship.

(vii) Calculate the width b of the cotter by shear consideration and bending
consideration and select the width, whichever is maximum between these two
values.
Design procedure for cotter joint:
(viii) Check the crushing and shear stresses in the spigot end.

(ix) Check the crushing and shear stresses in the socket end.

(x) Calculate the thickness t1 of the spigot collar by the following empirical
relationship
Problem based on cotter joint:
 It is required to design a cotter joint to connect two steel rods of equal
diameter. Each rod is subjected to an axial tensile force of 50 kN. Design the
joint and specify its main dimensions.
Design of Machine Element
Design of Knuckle joint
Module 5: What is Knuckle joint, Stress analysis and design of Knuckle joint

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
What is Knuckle joint :
 Knuckle joint is used to connect two rods whose axes either coincide or
intersect and lie in one plane.
 The knuckle joint is used to transmit axial tensile force.
 The construction of this joint permits limited angular movement between
rods, about the axis of the pin.
 A knuckle joint is unsuitable to connect two rotating shafts, which transmit
torque.
 Typical applications of knuckle joints are as follows:
(i) Joints between the tie bars in roof trusses.
(ii) Joints between the links of a suspension bridge.
(iii) Joints in valve mechanism of a reciprocating engine.
(iv) Fulcrum for the levers.
(v) Joints between the links of a bicycle chain
Knuckle joint:
The knuckle joint offers the following
advantages:
(i) The joint is simple to design and
manufacture.
(ii) There are a few parts in the knuckle joint,
which reduces cost and improves reliability.
(iii) The assembly or dismantling of the parts of
a knuckle joint is quick and simple. The
assembly consists of inserting the eye of one
rod inside the fork of the other rod and putting
the pin in their common hole and fi nally putting
the split-pin to hold the pin. Dismantling consists
of removing the split-pin and taking the pin out
of the eye and the fork

Fig.1: Knuckle joint

Knuckle joint:
Following assumptions are made for the stress
analysis of a knuckle joint:
(i) The rods are subjected to axial tensile force.
(ii) The effect of stress concentration due to
holes is neglected.
(iii) The force is uniformly distributed in various
parts.

Fig.2: Knuckle joint

Free body diagram of Knuckle joint:

Fig.3: Knuckle joint Fig. 4: Free body diagram of forces

(i) Tensile Failure of Rods :
 Each rod is subjected to a tensile force P. The tensile stress in the rod is
given by.

 Where is the permissible tensile stress for the rods.

 The enlarged diameter of the rod near the joint is
determined by the following empirical relationship.
(ii) Shear Failure of Pin:
• The
  pin is subjected to double shear as shown in Fig.5. The area of each of
the two planes that resist shear failure is .
 Therefore, shear stress in the pin is given by,

 Where is the permissible shear stress for the pin.

The standard proportion for the diameter of the pin is
as follows,

Fig. 5: Shear Failure of Pin

(iii) Crushing Failure of Pin in Eye:
• When
  a cylindrical surface such as a pin is subjected to a force along its
periphery, its projected area is taken into consideration to find out the stress. As
shown in Fig. 6, the projected area of the cylindrical surface is and the
compressive stress is given by

Fig. 6: Projected Area of Cylindrical Surface

The projected area of the pin in the eye is (bd) and the
compressive stress between the pin and the eye is given
by

Fig. 7: Projected Area of Cylindrical Surface

(iv) Crushing Failure of Pin in Fork:
 As shown in Fig.8, the total projected area of the pin in the fork is (2ad) and the
compressive stress between the pin and the fork is given by,

Fig. 8: Crushing failure of pin in fork

(v) Bending Failure of Pin:
 When the pin is tight in the eye and the fork, failure occurs due to shear.
 On the other hand, when the pin is loose, it is subjected to bending moment
as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9: Pin Treated as Beam (a) Actual Distribution of Forces

(b) Simplified Diagram of Forces
(vi) Tensile Failure of Eye:
 Section XX shown in Fig.10. is the weakest section of the eye. The area of
this section is given by

The tensile stress at section XX is given by,

Fig.10: Tensile Failure of Eye

(vii) Shear Failure of Eye:
• The
  eye is subjected to double shear as shown in Fig.11. The area of each of
the two planes resisting the shear failure is approximately.
Therefore, shear stress is given by,

Standard proportion for outside diameter of the eye

or the fork is given by the following relationship,

Fig. 11: Shear Failure of Eye

(viii) Tensile Failure of Fork:
 When Fork is a double eye and as such, Fig.12. is applicable to a fork except
for dimension b which can be modified as 2a in case of a fork. The area of
the weakest section resisting tensile failure is given by

Tensile stress in the fork is given by

Fig. 12: Tensile failure of fork

(ix) Shear Failure of Fork :
 Each of the two parts of the fork is subjected to double shear

 Standard proportions for the dimensions a and b are as follows,

 The diameter of the pinhead is taken as,

 The gap x shown in Fig. 13. is usually taken as 10 mm.
Design procedure for knuckle joint:
The basic procedure to calculate the dimensions of the cotter joint consists of
the following steps:
(i) Calculate the diameter of each rod by Eq.
(ii) Calculate the enlarged diameter of each rod by empirical relationship using

(iii) Calculate the dimensions a and b by empirical relationship

(iv) Calculate the diameters of the pin by shear consideration and bending
consideration and select the diameter, whichever is maximum.
Design procedure for knuckle joint:
(v) Calculate the dimensions do and d1 by empirical relationships

(vi) Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the eye

(vii) Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the fork
Problem based on knuckle joint:
 It is required to design a knuckle joint to connect two circular rods subjected
to an axial tensile force of 50 kN. The rods are co-axial and a small amount
of angular movement between their axes is permissible. Design the joint and
specify the dimensions of its components. Select suitable materials for the
parts.
Design of Machine Element
Design of Shaft
Module 6: What is shaft, Design of shaft (solid and hollow) for combined bending and
axial loads
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Design of Shaft:

 Class Objective1: What is shaft?

 Class Objective2: Design of shaft ( solid and hollow) based on combined
bending and axial loads.
What is Shaft :
 A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which
is used to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which
produces power to a machine which absorbs power.
 The term ‘transmission shaft’ usually refers to a rotating machine element,
circular in cross-section, which supports transmission elements like gears,
pulleys and sprockets and transmits power.
Specific name of shaft:
 Shafts are given specific names in typical applications, although all
applications involve transmission of power, motion and torque. Some of the
specific categories of transmission shafts are as follows:
 Axle: The term ‘axle’ is used for a shaft that supports rotating elements like
wheels, hoisting drums or rope sheaves and which is fitted to the housing by
means of bearings. In general, an axle is subjected to bending moment due
to transverse loads like bearing reactions and does not transmit any useful
torque, Occasionally, the axle also transmits torque.

Fig.1: Axle
Specific name of shaft:
 Spindle: A spindle is a short rotating shaft. The term ‘spindle’ originates
from the round tapering stick on a spinning wheel, on which the thread is
twisted. Spindles are used in all machine tools such as the small drive shaft
of a lathe or the spindle of a drilling machine.
 Countershaft: It is a secondary shaft, which is driven by the main shaft and
from which the power is supplied to a machine component. Often, the
countershaft is driven from the main shaft by means of a pair of spur or
helical gears and thus rotates ‘counter’ to the direction of the main shaft.
Countershafts are used in multi-stage gearboxes.
 Jackshaft: It is an auxiliary or intermediate shaft between two shafts that are
used in transmission of power. Its function is same as that of the
countershaft.
 Line shaft: A line shaft consists of a number of shafts, which are connected
in axial direction by means of couplings. Line shafts were popular in
workshops using group drive.
Material for shaft:
 Ordinary transmission shafts are made of medium carbon steels with a
carbon content from 0.15 to 0.40 per cent such as 30C8 or 40C8. These
steels are commonly called machinery steels. Where greater strength is
required, high carbon steels such as 45C8 or 50C8 or alloy steels are
employed.
 Alloy steels include nickel, nickel–chromium and molybdenum steels.
Common grades of alloy steels used for making transmission shafts are
16Mn5Cr4, 40Cr4Mo2, 16Ni3Cr2, 35Ni5Cr2, 40Ni6Cr4Mo2 and
40Ni10Cr3Mo6.
 Alloy steels are costly compared with plain carbon steels. However, alloy
steels have higher strength, hardness and toughness.
Design of shaft on strength basis :
 Transmission shafts are subjected to axial tensile force, bending moment or
torsional moment or their combinations. Most of the transmission shafts are
subjected to combined bending and torsional moments.
 Tensile strength:

 Bending strength:
Torsional shear strength:
Stress calculation:
• When
  the shaft is subjected to combination of loads, the principal stress and
principal shear stress are obtained by constructing Mohr’s circle as shown in
figure 2. The normal stress is denoted by while the shear stress, by .

 Case I: In this case, the shaft is subjected to a

combination of axial force, bending moment
and torsional moment.

 Case II: In this case, the shaft is subjected to

a combination of bending and torsional
moments without any axial force.

Fig.2: Mohr’s circle

Stress using Mohr’s circle:
 The Mohr’s circle is constructed by the following steps:
 (i) Select the origin O.
(ii) Plot the following points: OA = AB = OD =
(iii) Join DB. The point of intersection of DB and OA is E.
(iv) Construct Mohr’s circle with E as centre and EB as radius

The principal stress is given by

The principal shear stress is given by

Fig.2: Mohr’s circle

Maximum principal stress theory:
• The
  maximum principal stress is . Since the shaft is subjected to bending and
torsional moments without any axial force.

 The permissible value of maximum principal stress is given by

Maximum shear stress theory:
• The
  principal shear stress is
Which theory is good for shaft design?
 The maximum shear stress theory is applicable to ductile materials. Since the
shafts are made of ductile materials, it is more logical to apply this theory to
shaft design rather than designing the shaft on the basis of principal stress
theory.
Equivalent torsional moment:
• The
  equivalent torsional moment is defined as the torsional moment, which
when acting alone, will produce the same torsional shear stress in the shaft
as under the combined action of bending moment () and torsional moment ().

 The equivalent bending moment is defined as the bending moment, which

when acting alone, will produce the same bending stresses (tensile and
compressive) in the shaft as under the combined action of bending moment
() and torsional moment ( ).

 The concept of equivalent torsional moment is used in the design of shafts on

the basis of maximum shear stress theory of failure.
 The concept of equivalent bending moment is used in the design of shafts on
the basis of maximum principal stress theory of failure.
Shaft design based on torsional rigidity basis:
• In
  some applications, the shafts are designed on the basis of either torsional
rigidity or lateral rigidity.
 A transmission shaft is said to be rigid on the basis of torsional rigidity, if it
does not twist too much under the action of an external torque.
 Transmission shaft is said to be rigid on the basis of lateral rigidity, if it does
not deflect too much under the action of external forces and bending
moment.
 In certain applications, like machine tool spindles, it is necessary to design
the shaft on the basis of torsional rigidity.
 On the basis of permissible angle of twist per metre length of shaft. The
angle of twist (in radians) is given by,
Shaft design based on torsional rigidity basis:
• On
  the basis of permissible angle of twist per metre length of shaft. The
angle of twist (in radians) is given by.

 Converting from radians to degrees ()

 For solid circular shaft

= angle of twist (deg.)

= length of shaft subjected to twisting moment (mm)
= torsional moment (N-mm) = modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)
= shaft diameter (mm)
ASME code for shaft design:
• Each
  of the According to this code, the permissible shear stress . for the shaft
without keyways is taken as 30% of yield strength in tension or 18% of the
ultimate tensile strength of the material, whichever is minimum.

 According to the ASME code, the bending and torsional moments are to be
multiplied by factors and respectively, to account for shock and fatigue in
operating condition.
 The ASME code is based on maximum shear stress theory of failure.

  = combined shock and fatigue factor

applied to bending moment
= combined shock and fatigue factor
applied to torsional moment
ASME CODE for shaft design (Equivalent torsional moment):
 The equivalent torsional moment is defined as the torsional moment, which
when acting alone, will produce the same torsional shear stress in the shaft
as under the combined action of bending moment (Mb) and torsional moment
(Mt ) under fluctuating loads.

 The equivalent bending moment is defi ned as the bending moment, which
when acting alone, will produce the same bending stresses (tensile and
compressive) in the shaft as under the combined action of bending moment
(Mb) and torsional moment (Mt ) under fluctuating loads
Problem based on design of shaft:
 The layout of a transmission shaft carrying two pulleys B and C and
supported on bearings A and D is shown in Fig. 1. Power is supplied to the
shaft by means of a vertical belt on the pulley B, which is then transmitted to
the pulley C carrying a horizontal belt. The maximum tension in the belt on
the pulley B is 2.5 kN. The angle of wrap for both the pulleys is 180° and the
coeffi cient of friction is 0.24. The shaft is made of plain carbon steel 30C8
(Syt = 400 N/mm2) and the factor of safety is 3. Determine the shaft diameter
on strength basis
Design of Machine Element
Design of Shaft
Module 6: Design of shaft hollow shaft for combined bending and axial loads

Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.

SMEC Chennai Campus
Design of hollow shaft on strength basis :
 The torsional shear stress and bending stresses in the shaft are given by

 It is observed that the torsional shear

stress as well as bending stresses are
zero at the shaft centre (r = 0 and y = 0)

 Negligibly small in the vicinity of the shaft

centre, where the radius is small.

 As the radius increases, the resisting

stresses due to external bending and
torsional moments increase.

 Therefore, outer fibres are more effective

in resisting the applied moments.

 In hollow shafts, the material at the centre

is removed and spread at large radius.
Therefore, hollow shafts are stronger than
Fig.1: (a) Distribution of Bending Stresses (b) solid shafts having the same weight.
Distribution of Torsional Shear Stress
Hollow shaft offers following advantages compared with solid shaft:
Advantages:
 The stiffness of the hollow shaft is more than that of solid shaft with same
weight.
 The strength of hollow shaft is more than that of solid shaft with same weight.
 The natural frequency of hollow shaft is higher than that of solid shaft with
same weight.
 Hollow shafts are used to provide passage for coolants and control cables in
case of deep hole drilling and borewell drilling.
Disadvantages:
 Hollow shaft is costlier than solid shaft.
 The diameter of hollow shaft is more than that of solid shaft and requires
more space.
Design of hollow shaft:
  The design of hollow shaft consists of determining the correct inner and outer
diameters from strength and rigidity considerations. Such shafts are subjected to
axial tensile force, bending moment, torsional moment or combination of these
loads.

where, = inside diameter of the hollow shaft (mm)

= outside diameter of the hollow shaft (mm)
C= ratio of inside diameter to outside diameter.
 When the shaft is subjected to axial tensile force, the tensile stress is given by
Design of hollow shaft:
 When the shaft is subjected to bending moment, the bending stresses are
given by
………………………(1)

For hollow circular cross-section,

……..........................(2)

…………..…………..(3)
 Substituting Eqs (2) and (3) in Eq. (1)
Design of hollow shaft :
 When the shaft is subjected to pure torsional moment, the torsional shear
stress is given by,

………………………..(4)
For a hollow circular cross-section,

………………..(5)

………………………..(6)
Substituting Eqs (5) and (6) in Eq. (4)
Construction of Mohr’s circle:
  Case I: In this case, the shaft is subjected
to a combination of axial force, bending
moment and torsional moment.

 Case II: In this case, the shaft is subjected

to a combination of bending and torsional
moments, without any axial force.

 The principal stress and principal shear

stress are obtained

Fig.2: Mohr’s circle

Shaft design based on Maximum principal stress and Maximum shear stress
theory :
 Let us assume that the hollow shaft is subjected to combined bending and
torsional moments without any axial force and apply these theories of failures.
(i) Maximum Principal Stress Theory
Maximum principal stress theory continued:
 The below equation can be used to determine the outer diameter of the hollow
shaft on the basis of maximum principal stress theory.
Maximum shear stress theory:
 The maximum shear stress given as
Comaprison of stress equation for solid and hollow shaft:

Solid Shaft

Hollow Shaft

  Expressions for for solid and hollow shafts are similar except the term (1 – C4).
The expressions for . are also similar for solid and hollow shafts except the term (1
– C4).
Design of hollow shaft based on torsional rigidity:
• The
  design of hollow shaft on the basis of torsional rigidity is governed by the
permissible angle of twist per metre length of shaft. The angle of twist () in
radian is given by,

Converting () from radians to degrees

For hollow circular cross-section,

Design of Machine Element
Design of Coupling
Module 6: Rigid Coupling (Muff, Split muff and Flange couplings)
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
What is Coupling :
 A coupling can be defined as a mechanical device that permanently joins two
rotating shafts to each other.
 The most common application of coupling is joining of shafts.
 Example1: A coupling is used to join the output shaft of an engine to the input
shaft of a hydraulic pump to raise water from well.
 Example2: A coupling is used to join the output shaft of an electric motor to
the input shaft of a gearbox in machine tools.
Coupling Clutch
 Coupling is a permanent connection  Clutch can connect or disconnect two shafts
at the will of the operator.

Fig.1: Coupling
Fig.2: Clutch
Different type of couplings:
 The shafts to be connected by the coupling may have collinear axes,
intersecting axes or parallel axes with a small distance in between.
 Rigid or flexible couplings are used when the axes of shaft are collinear or in
the same line.
 Oldham coupling is used when the axes of the shaft are parallel, when they
are at a small distance apart.
 Hooke’s coupling is used to connect when two shafts having intersecting
axes.
 Flexible coupling is capable of tolerating a small amount of misalignment
between the shafts, there is no such provision in rigid coupling.

Fig.1: Axle
Difference between Rigid and flexible coupling:
Rigid Flexible
 A rigid coupling cannot tolerate  A flexible coupling, can tolerate 0.5°
misalignment between the axes of of angular misalignment and 5 mm of
the shafts. axial displacement between the
 It can be used only when there is shafts due to provision of flexible
precise alignment between two elements like bush or disk.
shafts.
 Cannot absorb shocks and  Can absorb shocks and vibrations.
vibrations.  Costlier due to additional parts
 Simple and inexpensive.
 In practice, misalignment always exists due to imperfect workmanship. Therefore, flexible couplings are
more popular.
 A good coupling, rigid or flexible, should satisfy the following requirements:
(a) The coupling should be capable of transmitting torque from the driving shaft to the driven shaft.
(b) The coupling should keep the two shafts in proper alignment.
(c) The coupling should be easy to assemble and disassemble for the purpose of repairs and alterations.
(d) The failure of revolving bolt heads, nuts, key heads and other projecting parts may cause accidents. They
should be covered by giving suitable shape to the flanges or by providing guards.
Muff coupling (rigid type):
 Muff coupling is also called sleeve coupling or box coupling.

 Consists of a sleeve or a
hollow cylinder, which is
fitted over the ends of input
and output shafts by means
of a sunk key.
 The torque is transmitted
from the input shaft to the
sleeve through the key. It is
Fig.3: Muff Coupling then transmitted from the
sleeve to the output shaft
D=(2d+3)mm
L=3.5dmm through the key.
D = outer diameter of the sleeve (mm)
L = axial length of the sleeve (mm)
d = diameter of the shaft (mm)
Advantages of muff coupling :
 It is the simplest form of coupling with only two parts, viz., sleeve and key. It is
simple to design and manufacture.
 It has no projecting parts except the key head. The external surface of the
sleeve is smooth. This is an advantage from the standpoint of safety to the
operator.
 It has compact construction with small radial dimensions.
 It is cheaper than other types of coupling.
Disadvantages of muff coupling :
 Muff coupling is difficult to assemble or dismantle.
 It is a rigid type of coupling and requires accurate alignment of shafts.
 it cannot absorb shocks and vibrations.
 More axial space require to use this coupling.
 Muff coupling are employed for shafts only up to 70 mm diameter.
The free body diagram of muff coupling:
 When torsional moments acting on various components of the muff coupling
shown in the below figure.

 The torsional shear stress in the sleeve

is calculated by treating it as a hollow
shaft subjected to torsional moment.

Fig.4: Muff Coupling free body diagram (torsional

moments)
Design procedure:
 The basic procedure for finding out the dimensions of the muff coupling consists
of the following steps:
Step1: Calculate the diameter of each shaft by the following equations:

Step2: Calculate the dimensions of the sleeve by the following empirical equations.

Also, check the torsional shear stress induced in the sleeve by the following
equations:
Design procedure continued:
Step3: Determine the standard cross-section of flat sunk key from Table 1 (Data
handbook). The length of the key in each shaft is one-half of the length of the
sleeve. Therefore, Table1: Dimensions of square and rectangular sunk keys
(mm)

 With these dimensions of the key,

check the shear and compressive stresses
in the key by the equations.

 The shafts and key are made of plain carbon steel.

 The sleeve is usually made of grey cast iron of Grade
FG 200.
Problem based on rigid muff coupling:
 Design a muff coupling to connect two steel shafts transmitting 25 kW power at 360
rpm. The shafts and key are made of plain carbon steel 30C8 (Syt = Syc = 400
N/mm2). The sleeve is made of grey cast iron FG 200 (Sut = 200 N/mm2). The
factor of safety for the shafts and key is 4. For the sleeve, the factor of safety is 6
based on ultimate strength.
Split muff coupling/ clamping coupling (rigid type):
 The split muff coupling is also called compression coupling or clamp coupling.
 In this coupling, the sleeve is made of two halves, which are split along a plane
passing through the axes of shafts.
 The two halves of the sleeve are clamped together by means of bolts.
 The number of bolts can be four or eight. They are always in multiples of four.
 The bolts are placed in recesses formed in the sleeve halves.
 The torque is transmitted by means of frictional force on the surface of the
shaft.

Fig.5: Split Muff Coupling

Split muff coupling/ clamping coupling (rigid type):
 Power is transmitted from the input shaft to the sleeve and from the sleeve to
the output shaft by means of the key and friction between the sleeve halves
and the shaft.
Advantages of split muff coupling:
 It is easy to assemble and dismantle.
 It can be easily removed without shifting the shaft in axial direction, unlike solid
muff coupling.
 Clamp coupling has small diametral dimensions.
Disadvantages of split muff coupling:
 There is difficulty in dynamic balancing of
the coupling. Therefore, it is not possible to use
the clamp coupling for high-speed applications.
 Clamp coupling is unsuitable for shock loads.
 It is necessary to provide a guard for the coupling Fig.5: Split Muff Coupling
to comply with the factory regulation act.
Difference between muff and split muff clamping:
 In muff coupling, torque is transmitted by shear resistance of keys. On the
other hand, split muff coupling torque is transmitted partly by means of
friction between the sleeve halves and the shaft and partly by shear
resistance of key in case of clamp coupling.
 Clamp coupling is usually designed on the basis of standard proportions for
sleeve halves and clamping bolts.

Where D = outer diameter of sleeve halves (mm)

L = length of sleeve (mm)
d = diameter of shaft (mm
 For clamping bolts,
Calculation of shaft diameter:
• Alternatively,
  the diameter of the clamping bolts can be calculated from the first
principle. Let us assume that even with key, the torque is transmitted only by the
friction between the shaft and the coupling halves.
 The clamping force of each bolt is given by

Where P1 = tensile force on each bolt (N)

d1 = core diameter of clamping bolt (mm)
= permissible tensile stress (N/mm2) Fig. 6: Forces on Shaft
 It is assumed that half the number of bolts give clamping pressure on input shaft
and the remaining half on the output shaft. Therefore, clamping force on each
shaft is given by

Where, n = total number of bolts

N = clamping force on each shaft (N)
Calculation of torque transmitted:
 Clamping force on each shaft is given by ………(1)

 The frictional force is (fN) and frictional torque is given by

…………(2)

Where, f = coefficient of friction

 From equation 1 and 2 we can write

Fig. 6: Forces on Shaft
Design procedure:
 Step 1: Calculate the diameter of each shaft by the following equations:

The shaft, key and clamping bolts are usually made of plain carbon steel.

 Step 2: Calculate the main dimensions of the sleeve halves by using the
following empirical equations:

The sleeve halves are made of grey cast iron of Grade FG 200.
 Step 3: Determine the standard cross-section of the flat key from Table 1. The
length of the key in each shaft is one-half of the length of sleeve. Therefore,
Design procedure continued:
 With previously calculated dimensions of the key, check the shear and
compressive stresses in the key by equations.

 Calculate the diameter of clamping bolts

Problem based on split muff coupling:
 It is required to design a split muff coupling to transmit 50 kW power at 120
rpm The shafts, key and clamping bolts are made of plain carbon steel 30C8
(Syt = 400 N/mm2). The yield strength in compression is 150% of the tensile
yield strength. The factor of safety for shafts, key and bolts is 5. The number
of clamping bolts is 8. The coefficient of friction between sleeve halves and
the shaft is 0.3. (i) Calculate the diameter of the input and output shafts. (ii)
Specify the length and outer diameter of the sleeve halves. (iii) Find out the
diameter of clamping bolts assuming that the power is transmitted by friction.
(iv) Specify bolt diameter using standard empirical relations. (v) Specify the
size of key and check the dimensions for shear and compression criteria.
Design of Machine Element
Design of Coupling
Module 6: Rigid Coupling (Flange couplings)
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Flange coupling (rigid type):
 A flange coupling consists of two flanges--one keyed to the driving shaft and
the other to the driven shaft.
 The two flanges are connected together by means of four or six bolts arranged
on a circle concentric with the axes of the shafts.
 Power is transmitted from the driving shaft to
the left side flange through the key.

 It is then transmitted from the left side flange

to the right side flange through the bolts.

 Finally, power is transmitted from the right

side flange to the driven shaft through the
key.

 Since flange coupling is rigid type of

coupling, provision should be made for
precise location of the axes of two shafts.
Fig.1: Flange Coupling
Flange coupling (rigid type) continued:
 The mating flanges have spigot and recess for precise location.
 The left side flange has a cylindrical projection called spigot while the right side
flange has a corresponding recess.

 The diameters of the spigot and the recess

are machined with more accuracy.

 During the assembly, the spigot fits into the

recess and the two flanges are located
precisely with respect to each other. This
ensures alignment of the axes of the two
shafts.

Fig.1: Flange Coupling

Type of flange coupling (rigid type):

Fig.2: Unprotected flange Coupling Fig.3: Protected flange Coupling

 There are two types of rigid flange couplings— unprotected and protected.
 The revolving bolt heads and nuts are dangerous to the operator and may lead
to accident (unprotected flange coupling).
 Protecting circumferential rims cover the bolt heads and nuts. In case of failure
of bolts while the machine is being run, the broken pieces will dash against this
rim and eventually fall down. This protects the operator against injuries
(protected flange coupling)
Advantages of flange coupling :
 Rigid coupling has high torque transmitting capacity.
 Rigid coupling is easy to assemble and dismantle.
 Rigid coupling has simple construction. It is easy to design and manufacture.

Disadvantages of flange coupling :

 It is a rigid type of coupling. It cannot tolerate misalignment between the axes of
two shafts.
 It can be used only where the motion is free from shocks and vibrations.
 It requires more radial space.
Rigid flange coupling:
 Rigid flange couplings are widely used for transmitting large torques.

  The standard proportions for various

dimensions of the flange are as follows:

 = outside diameter of hub

= 2d
 = length of hub or effective length of key
= 1.5 d
 D = pitch circle diameter of bolts
D = 3d
 t = thickness of flanges
t = 0.5 d
 = thickness of protecting rim
Fig.4: Proportions of Rigid Coupling = 0.25 d
 = diameter of spigot and recess
= 1.5 d
 The number of bolts (N) can selected based on diameter
 = outside diameter of flange
N = 3 for shafts up to 40 mm diameter
= (4d + 2 )
N = 4 for shafts from 40 to 100 mm diameter
N = 6 for shafts from 100 to 180 mm diameter
Analysis of flange coupling (rigid):
 The analysis of rigid coupling can be done by two different ways, depending
upon the clearance between the bolt and the hole.
 Case1: Bolts Fitted in Reamed and Ground Holes:
The forces acting on individual bolts due to transmission of the torque are shown in
below figure Equating the external torque with the resisting torque
………….....(1)

Where,
  = torque transmitted by the coupling (N-mm)
P = force acting on each bolt (N)
D = pitch circle diameter of bolts (mm)
N = number of bolts.

 It should be noted that the bolts are subjected to direct shear

stress due to the force P and not torsional shear stress.
 The force P results in only direct shear stress. The direct
shear stress in the bolt is given by
………..(2)
Fig5: Shear Resistance of Bolts
Analysis of flange coupling (rigid) continued:

From equation1 and equation 2,

 The above analysis of the coupling is based on the assumption that the bolts are
fitted in rimmed and ground holes.
Analysis of flange coupling (rigid):
• Case II: Bolts Fitted in Large Clearance Holes:
 
For uniformly distributed pressure, the friction radius is given by

Where, = outer radius of the fl ange ( /2) (mm)

= radius of the recess ( /2) (mm) Assume that,
= initial tension in each bolt (N)
m = coefficient of friction between flanges

 The friction force will be (μ N) and the torque is given by

Design procedure for rigid flange coupling:
(i) Shaft Diameter: Calculate the shaft diameter by using the following two
equations:

(ii) Dimensions of Flanges: Calculate the dimensions of the flanges by the following
empirical equations:
Design procedure for rigid flange coupling continued:
(III)
•   Torsional shear stress in the hub : The torsional shear stress in the hub can be
calculated by considering it as a hollow shaft subjected to torsional moment .

 The inner and outer diameters of the hub are and respectively. The torsional shear
stress in the hub is given by

 The flange at the junction of the hub is under shear while transmitting the torsional
moment .
Split muff coupling/ clamping coupling (rigid type):
 The split muff coupling is also called compression coupling or clamp coupling.
 In this coupling, the sleeve is made of two halves, which are split along a plane
passing through the axes of shafts.
 The two halves of the sleeve are clamped together by means of bolts.
 The number of bolts can be four or eight. They are always in multiples of four.
 The bolts are placed in recesses formed in the sleeve halves.
 The torque is transmitted by means of frictional force on the surface of the
shaft.

Fig.5: Split Muff Coupling

Split muff coupling/ clamping coupling (rigid type):
 Power is transmitted from the input shaft to the sleeve and from the sleeve to
the output shaft by means of the key and friction between the sleeve halves
and the shaft.
Advantages of split muff coupling:
 It is easy to assemble and dismantle.
 It can be easily removed without shifting the shaft in axial direction, unlike solid
muff coupling.
 Clamp coupling has small diametral dimensions.
Disadvantages of split muff coupling:
 There is difficulty in dynamic balancing of
the coupling. Therefore, it is not possible to use
the clamp coupling for high-speed applications.
 Clamp coupling is unsuitable for shock loads.
 It is necessary to provide a guard for the coupling Fig.5: Split Muff Coupling
to comply with the factory regulation act.
Difference between muff and split muff clamping:
 In muff coupling, torque is transmitted by shear resistance of keys. On the
other hand, split muff coupling torque is transmitted partly by means of
friction between the sleeve halves and the shaft and partly by shear
resistance of key in case of clamp coupling.
 Clamp coupling is usually designed on the basis of standard proportions for
sleeve halves and clamping bolts.

Where D = outer diameter of sleeve halves (mm)

L = length of sleeve (mm)
d = diameter of shaft (mm
 For clamping bolts,
Calculation of shaft diameter:
• Alternatively,
  the diameter of the clamping bolts can be calculated from the first
principle. Let us assume that even with key, the torque is transmitted only by the
friction between the shaft and the coupling halves.
 The clamping force of each bolt is given by

Where P1 = tensile force on each bolt (N)

d1 = core diameter of clamping bolt (mm)
= permissible tensile stress (N/mm2) Fig. 6: Forces on Shaft
 It is assumed that half the number of bolts give clamping pressure on input shaft
and the remaining half on the output shaft. Therefore, clamping force on each
shaft is given by

Where, n = total number of bolts

N = clamping force on each shaft (N)
Calculation of torque transmitted:
 Clamping force on each shaft is given by ………(1)

 The frictional force is (fN) and frictional torque is given by

…………(2)

Where, f = coefficient of friction

 From equation 1 and 2 we can write

Fig. 6: Forces on Shaft
Design procedure:
 Step 1: Calculate the diameter of each shaft by the following equations:

The shaft, key and clamping bolts are usually made of plain carbon steel.

 Step 2: Calculate the main dimensions of the sleeve halves by using the
following empirical equations:

The sleeve halves are made of grey cast iron of Grade FG 200.
 Step 3: Determine the standard cross-section of the flat key from Table 1. The
length of the key in each shaft is one-half of the length of sleeve. Therefore,
Design procedure continued:
 With previously calculated dimensions of the key, check the shear and
compressive stresses in the key by equations.

 Calculate the diameter of clamping bolts

Design of Machine Element
Design of IC Engine parts
Module 7: Piston
Tapan Kumar Mahanta, Ph.D.
SMEC Chennai Campus
Design of Piston:
 Piston consists of the following parts as mentioned in Fig.3.
 Piston head or crown is the top portion of the piston
which withstands the gas pressure inside the
cylinder. It has flat, concave or convex shape
depending upon the construction of combustion
chamber.

 Piston rings act as seal and prevent the leakage of

gas past the piston. Piston rings are also called
‘compression’ rings.

 Oil scraper ring prevents the leakage of lubricating

oil past the piston into the combustion chamber.

 Piston skirt is the lower part of the piston below the

piston rings which acts as bearing surface for the
side thrust exerted by the connecting rod.

 Piston pin connects the piston to the connecting

Fig.3: Piston rod. It is also called ‘gudgeon’ pin or ‘wrist’ pin.
The design requirements for the piston are as follows::
 It should have sufficient strength to withstand the force due to combustion of
fuel and also the inertia forces due to reciprocating parts.

 It should have sufficient rigidity to withstand thermal and mechanical distortions.

 It should have adequate capacity to dissipate the heat from the crown to the
cylinder wall through the piston rings and the skirt.

 It should have minimum weight to reduce the inertia force due to reciprocating
motion.
 It should form an efficient seal to prevent leakage of flue gases from combustion
chamber to the crankcase past the piston. It should also prevent leakage of
lubricating oil into the combustion chamber past the piston.

 It should result in noiseless operation.

Piston materials:
 Commonly used materials for IC engine pistons are cast iron, cast steel, forged
steel, cast aluminium alloys and forged aluminium alloy.

Advantages of aluminium alloy:

 The thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys is approximately three times that of
cast iron. Therefore, an aluminium alloy piston has less variation in temperature
from the crown to the piston rings.
 The density of aluminium alloy is about one third that of cast iron. This results in
light weight construction and reduces inertia forces.

Advantages of cast iron:

 Cast iron pistons have higher strength compared with aluminium alloy pistons.
 The wear strength of a cast iron piston is more than corresponding aluminium
alloy piston.
Design procedure of piston:
• Thickness
  of piston head ():

 Where, = thickness of piston head (mm)

D = cylinder bore (mm)

= maximum gas pressure or explosion pressure

(MPa or N/mm2)

= permissible bending stress (N/mm2) =

The allowable bending stress ( )
 Grey cast iron is taken from 35 to 40 N/mm2.
 Aluminium alloy, it can be assumed from 50 to 90 N/mm2
 The maximum gas pressure (pmax.) may rise up to 8 MPa.
Fig.4: Types of piston head The average value of maximum gas pressure is taken as 4
to 5 MPa or N/mm2

 Empirical formula recommended for the thickness of the piston head

Thickness of piston on the basis of heat dissipation :
• The
  thickness of piston head :
 Where, = thickness of piston head (mm)
H = amount of heat conducted through piston head (W)
k = thermal conductivity factor (W/m/°C)
Tc = temperature at the center of piston head (°C)
Te = temperature at the edge of piston head (°C)
 The amount of heat conducted through piston head (H) is given by,

For grey cast iron, k = 46.6 W/m/°C

aluminium alloy, k = 175 W/m/°C
For grey cast iron, (Tc – Te) = 220°C
Where, HCV = Higher calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg) aluminium alloy, (Tc – Te) = 75°C
m = mass of fuel used per brake power per
second(kg/kW/s)
BP = brake power of the engine per cylinder (kW)
C is the ratio of heat absorbed by the piston to
the total heat developed in the cylinder (C = 5%
or C = 0.05)
Piston ribs and cup:
• Ribs
  strengthen the piston head against the gas pressure. They increase the
rigidity and prevent distortion of piston head.
 When ( no ribs)
(provide ribs)
 Number of ribs = 4 to 6
 The thickness of ribs is given by ,

Where, = thickness of ribs (mm)

= thickness of piston head (mm)
 A cup provides additional space for combustion of fuel. When the ratio of stroke length to bore
(l/D) is up to 1.5, a cup is required on the top of the piston.
 When ( cup required)
( cup not required)
 The radius of cup is given by, radius of cup = 0.7D
Design of piston rings:
 In IC engines, two types of piston rings are used, viz., compression rings and oil
scraper rings.
 Compression rings is to maintain a seal between the cylinder wall and piston and
prevent leakage of gas past the piston.
 They also transfer heat from the piston head to the cylinder wall.
 Piston rings also absorb fluctuations in side thrust.
 Oil scraper rings or oil control rings are provided below the compression rings.
 They provide proper lubrication of the cylinder liner and reduce frictional losses.
 Piston rings are usually made of grey cast iron and in some cases, alloy cast
iron.
 The number of compression rings in automobile and aircraft engines is usually
between 3 to 4.
 In stationary diesel engines, 5 to 7 compression rings are used.
 The number of oil scraper rings is usually between 1 to 3.
Design procedure for piston rings:
 The compression rings have rectangular cross-section as shown in below fig. 6.
 The radial width (b) of the ring is given by,

Where, b = radial width of ring (mm)

= allowable radial pressure on cylinder wall (N/mm2)
= permissible tensile stress for ring material (N/mm2)
 The radial wall pressure is usually taken from 0.025 to 0.042 Mpa. Fig.6: Piston rings
 The permissible tensile stress for cast iron rings is taken from 85 to 110 N/mm2.
 The axial thickness of piston ring is given by, . where h is the axial thickness of the
piston ring in mm.
 Minimum axial thickness. It is given by , z= number of rings
Design procedure for piston rings continued:
Gap
•   between free ends :
 The diameter of a piston ring is slightly more than the cylinder bore (D). A part of
the ring is slightly cut diagonally as shown in fig.7.
 During the assembly, the ring is compressed diagonally
and passed into the liner. ( before assembly)
( After assembly)
Width of Top Land and Ring Lands:

 The distance from the top of the piston to

Fig.7: Piston rings
the first ring groove (h1) is called top
land. It is given by,
 The distance between two consecutive
ring grooves (h2) is called the width of
the ring groove and is given by,
Fig. 8: Grooves for piston rings
Design procedure for piston rings continued:
• The
  piston barrel is the cylindrical portion of the piston below the piston head.
 The thickness of the piston barrel at the top end is given by,

Where, = thickness of piston barrel at the top end (mm)

b = radial width of ring (mm)
 The thickness of piston barrel at the lower or open end is
given by,

= thickness piston barrel at open end (mm)

Fig. 9: Piston barrel

Design procedure for piston skirt:
• The
  maximum side thrust will occur during expansion stroke.
Maximum gas force on piston head=
Side thrust=µ
Where m is the coefficient of friction (µ= 0.1)
 The side thrust taken by the skirt is also given by,
side thrust=D
Where = allowable bearing pressure (MPa )
= length of skirt (mm) = (0.65D) to (0.8D)
 Total length of the piston is given by (L)
L=top land+ length of ring section + length of skirt
L= D to 1.5D

Fig. 10: Piston skrit

Design of piston pin ( bearing consideration):
• There
  are two criteria for design of the piston pin--bearing consideration and
bending failure.
 It is assumed that the length of the pin in the connecting rod bush is 45% of
the piston diameter (D) or cylinder bore.
Therefore,
Where, = length of piston in bush of small end of
connecting rod
 The outer diameter of the piston pin () is
determined by equating the force acting on the piston
and the resisting bearing force offered by the piston pin:
Force on piston= -----------(1)
Resisting force=--------------(2)
Equating (1) and (2)

Fig.11: Piston pin as beam

Design of piston pin continued (bearing consideration):

•  

Where, = bearing pressure at the bushing of small end of connecting rod (MPa or N/mm2)
do = outer diameter of piston pin (mm)
 The bearing pressure at the bushing of the small end of the connecting rod (pb)1
is taken as 25 MPa.
 The inner diameter of the piston pin is taken as 0.6 times of the outer diameter.

 The mean diameter of the piston bosses is given by,

Mean diameter of piston bosses = 1.4 ( for grey cast iron piston)
Mean diameter of piston bosses=1.5 ( for aluminium alloy piston)
Design of piston pin ( Bending consideration):
• The
  bending moment acting on the pin at the central section XX is given by in
Fig.12 (b)

-------(3)
Also, ----------------------------------------(4)
Substituting (4) in (3),

, and
= 84 N/mm2 (for case hardened carbon steel)
= 140 N/mm2 (for heat treated alloy steels)

Fig.12: Piston pin as beam