CHAPTER

1
Introduction and Basic
Concepts
1. Thermodynamics and Energy
2. Importance of Dimensions and Units
3. Systems and Control Volumes
4. Properties of a System
5. Density and Specific Gravity
6. State and Equilibrium
7. Processes and Cycles
8. Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
9. Pressure
10. The Manometer
11. The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
12. Problem-Solving Technique
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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy

 Greek words : therme (heat) + dynamics (power)

 The study of thermodynamics is concerned with the ways energy is stored

within a body and how energy transformations, which involve heat and work,
may take place.

 One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy

principle (quantity).
- It simply states that during an energy interaction, energy can change from
one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is,
energy cannot be created or destroyed.

 We will approach the second law of thermodynamics from the classical

point of view and will learn that the second law of thermodynamics asserts
that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-2 Importance of Dimensions and Units

 Physical quantity can be characterized by Dimensions

- Primary or fundamental dimension : mass, length, time, and temperature
- Secondary dimensions : velocity, energy, volume

 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called Units

- The unit check is the simplest of all engineering checks that can be made
for a given solution.
- Since units present a major hindrance to the correct solution of
thermodynamic problems

 The system of units selected for this course is the SI System, also known
as the International System (sometimes called the metric system). In SI, the
units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and second
(s), respectively.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  We consider force to be a derived unit from Newton's second law, i.e.,
Force  (mass)(acceleration)
F  ma
- In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and it is defined as the force required
to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. That is,
m
1N  (1kg )(1 2
)
s
 The term weight is often misused to express mass. Unlike mass, weight Wt
is a force. Weight is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude
is determined from Newton's second law,
Wt = mg
- where m is the mass of the body and g is the local gravitational acceleration
(g is 9.807 m/s2 at sea level and 45latitude).
- the weight of a unit volume of a substance is called the specific weight w,γ
and is determined from w =  g, where  is density.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  Comparison of the United States Customary System (USCS), or English
System, and the slug system of units with the SI system is shown below.

SI USCS Slug
Mass Kilogram (kg) Pound-mass (lbm) Slug-mass (slug)

Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)

Length Meter (m) Foot (ft) Foot (ft)

Force Newton (N) Pound-force (lbf) Pound-force (lbf)

 gc is called the gravitational constant and is obtained from the force

definition. In the SI System 1 newton is that force required to accelerate 1 kg
mass 1 m/s2. The gravitational constant in the SI System is
ma
F =
gc
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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 m
(1kg )(1 )
ma s  1 kg m
2
gc = 
F 1N N s2

- In the USCS 1 pound-force is that force required to accelerate 1 pound-mass

32.176 ft/s2. The gravitational constant in the USCS is

ft
(1lbm)(32.2 )
ma s  32.2 lbm ft
2
gc = 
F 1lbf lbf s2

- In the slug system, the gravitational constant is

ft
(1slug )(1 )
ma s  1 lbm ft
2
gc = 
F 1 lbf lbf s 2

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-3 System and Control Volumes

 A thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter

or a region in space chosen for study. The region outside the system is called the
surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system may be fixed or
movable.

 Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.

 Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a

fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross
the system boundary. The closed system boundary may move.

 Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note
the volume does not have to be fixed). However, energy in the form of heat and
work may cross the boundaries of a closed system.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the
boundary, called a control surface. Examples of open systems are pumps,
compressors, turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Example: The gas turbine engine - an open system

Fuel Flow In

Combustor

Air Flow In Shaft Work Output

Compressor Work Out

Exhaust Gases Out

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work
may cross the boundaries. An isolated system is a closed system with no energy
crossing the boundaries and is normally a collection of a main system and its
surroundings that are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no
other system.

Isolated System Boundary

Heat = 0 Work
Work = 0
Surr 4
Mass = 0
Across Mass
Isolated System
Boundary Surr 3
Surr 1 Mass
Heat
Surr 2

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Macroscopic vs. microscopic
viewpoints...

A collection of atoms within a container, each with a unique velocity.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Energy in a microscopic description

1 2
Energy of each atom = e  m V
2
Number of atoms = N
N
N
  ke1
2
Total Energy = eN  mV
2 i 1

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 The macroscopic description
The energy in both cases
is the same, E. In the
macroscopic description,
atomistic concepts are
disregarded.
How we describe the
system chosen for study
requires careful section of
properties that are based
on observable, measurable
quantities.
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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 The macroscopic
viewpoint...

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 State of a Enumeration of
thermodynamic all of its
system. properties.

In macroscopic thermodynamics,
the properties of system are
assigned to the system as a whole.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Properties in macroscopic thermodynamics

 m 
 lim 


 
  0
Limit of the macroscopic
model and assumptions.
Density, 

Molecular and atomic

effects are important

 (m3)
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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-4 Properties of a System
 Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property.

 The property is independent of the path used to arrive at the system condition.

- Some thermodynamic properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and

mass m.

 Properties may be intensive or extensive.

 Extensive properties are those that vary directly with size--or extent--of the
system.

- Some Extensive Properties

a. mass
b. volume
c. total energy
d. mass dependent property

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  Intensive properties are those that are independent of size.

- Some Intensive Properties

a. temperature
b. pressure
c. age
d. color
e. any mass independent property

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Properties

Properties:
Properties:
••Temperature
Temperature
••Pressure
Pressure
••Volume
System
Volume
••Internal
Internal energy
energy
••Entropy
Entropy

The system can be either open or

closed. The concept of a property
still applies.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Equation of state

Surroundings Pressure, p

System
f(P,V,T) = 0

Thermodynamic
Surface Volume, V

Temperature, T

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-5 Density and Specific Gravity
 Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties.

 the specific volume v,

Volume V  m 3 
v   
mass m  kg 

 density , are intensive properties

mass m  kg 
   3
volume V  m 
 specific gravity SG, or relative density
mass m  kg 
   3
volume V  m 

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-6 State and Equilibrium
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. The properties can be
measured or calculated throughout the entire system. This gives us a set of
properties that completely describe the condition or state of the system. At a
given state all of the properties are known; changing one property changes the
state.

 Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it maintains thermal
(uniform temperature), mechanical (uniform pressure), phase (the mass of two
phases, e.g., ice and liquid water, in equilibrium) and chemical equilibrium.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  State Postulate

As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its properties. But by

experience not all properties must be known before the state is specified. Once
a sufficient number of properties are known, the state is specified and all other
properties are known. The number of properties required to fix the state of a
simple, homogeneous system is given by the state postulate:

The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible system is

completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-7 Processes and Cycles
 Process

Any change from one state to another is called a process. During a quasi-
equilibrium or quasi-static process the system remains practically in
equilibrium at all times. We study quasi-equilibrium processes because they
are easy to analyze (equations of state apply) and work-producing devices
deliver the most work when they operate on the quasi-equilibrium process.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  In most of the processes that we will study, one thermodynamic property is
held constant.

 Some of these processes are

Process Property held constant System

Boundary
isobaric pressure
isothermal temperature F
Water
isochoric volume
isentropic entropy (see Chapter 7)
Constant Pressure Process

-The force exerted by the water on the face of the piston has to equal the force
due to the combined weight of the piston and the bricks.
- If the combined weight of the piston and bricks is constant, then F is constant
and the pressure is constant even when the water is heated.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  We often show the process on a P-V diagram as shown below.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  Steady-Flow Process
- Consider a fluid flowing through an open system or control volume such as a
water heater.
- The flow is often defined by the terms steady and uniform. The term steady
implies that there are no changes with time.

 Engineering flow devices that operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions are classified as steady-flow devices.
- The processes for these devices is called the steady-flow process. The
fluid properties can change from point to point with in the control volume, but
at any fixed point the properties remain the same during the entire process.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  Cycle

-A process (or a series of connected processes) with identical end states is called
a cycle.
- Below is a cycle composed of two processes, A and B.
- Along process A, the pressure and volume change from state 1 to state 2. Then
to complete the cycle, the pressure and volume change from state 2 back to the
initial state 1 along process B.
- Keep in mind that all other thermodynamic properties must also change so that
the pressure is a function of volume as described by these two processes.

2
P Process
B

1
Process
A

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
 Temperature

- Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of “hotness” or

“coldness,” it is not easy to give an exact definition of it.
- However, temperature is considered as a thermodynamic property that is the
measure of the energy content of a mass. When heat energy is transferred to a
body, the body's energy content increases and so does its temperature. In fact it
is the difference in temperature that causes energy, called heat transfer, to flow
from a hot body to a cold body.

 The zeroth law of thermodynamics

-Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have reached the same
temperature.
- If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  The temperature scales used in the SI and the English systems today are the
Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale, respectively.
- These two scales are based on a specified number of degrees between the
freezing point of water ( 0C or 32F) and the boiling point of water (100C or
212F) and are related by
9
T  F = T  C  32
5
 The temperature used in thermodynamic calculations must be in absolute units.
The absolute scale in the SI system is the Kelvin scale, which is related to the
Celsius scale by
T K = T  C + 273.15

 In the English system, the absolute temperature scale is the Rankine scale,
which is related to the Fahrenheit scale by

T R = T  F+ 459.67
Also, note that
T R = 1.8 T K
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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Thermal equilibrium

T1 T2

Initial State: T1  T2
T1,final T2,final

Final State: T1  T2
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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Demonstration of the Zeroth Law

A B Adiabatic

Diathermal

D D

Two subsystems in equilibrium with a third subsystem

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 The Zeroth Law

Two systems in thermal

equilibrium with a third
system are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 C K F R

99.975 373.125 211.95 671.62 Boiling

 A comparison of the 5 5
point
of water
temperature scales. at 1 atm

0.01 273.16 32.02 491.69 Triple

point of
water

Absolute
0 zero
-273.15 -459.67 0

 The ice point is 0C, but the steam point is 99.975C at 1 atm and not 100C
as was previously established. The magnitude of the kelvin, K, is 1/273.16 of
the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
  The magnitudes of each division of 1 K and 1C are identical, and so are
the magnitudes of each division of 1 R and 1F. That is,

 
T K = (T2 C + 273.15) - (T1 C + 273.15)
 
= T2 C - T1 C = T  C
T R  T  F

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Temperature scales

Kelvin
Kelvin Scale
Scale Celsius
Celsius Scale
Scale
•• Triple
Triplepoint
pointof
ofwater
waterat
atPP==11 •• Triple
Triplepoint
pointof
ofwater
waterat
atPP==11
atm
atm atm
atm
TT==273.15
273.15KK TT==00ooCC
•• Steam
Steampoint
pointof
ofwater
wateratatPP==11 •• Steam
Steampoint
pointof
ofwater
wateratatPP==11
atm
atm atm
atm
TT==373.15
373.15KK TT==100
100ooCC
•• 11ooCC==11KK

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-9 Pressure
 Pressure is Force per unit area is called pressure, and its unit is the pascal,
N/m2, in the SI system and psia, lbf/in2 absolute, in the English system.

N
Force F 1 kPa  103
P  m2
Area A 6 N
1 MPa  10 2  103 kPa
m
 The pressure used in all calculations of state is the absolute pressure
measured relative to absolute zero pressure.
 However, pressures are often measured relative to atmospheric pressure,
called gage or vacuum pressures. In the English system the absolute pressure
and gage pressures are distinguished by their units, psia (pounds force per
square inch absolute) and psig (pounds force per square inch gage), respectively;
however, the SI system makes no distinction between absolute and gage
pressures.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 Pgage  Pabs  Patm
Pvac  Patm  Pabs
Pabs  Patm  Pgage

 Where the +Pgage is used when Pabs > Patm and –Pgage is used for a vacuum gage.
The relation among atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures is shown below.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon
 1-10 The Manometer
 Small to moderate pressure differences are measured by a manometer and a
differential fluid column of height h corresponds to a pressure difference between
the system and the surroundings of the manometer.

This pressure difference is determined from the manometer fluid displaced height
as

P   g h ( kPa )

 Other devices for measuring pressure

differences are shown below.

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Energy Conversion System Lab. Chung H. Jeon