2.

Temperature Transducers
▫ Thermocouples
▫ Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▫ Thermistors

1
1. Thermocouple
• In 1821, T.J. Seebeck discovered that an electric potential
occurs when 2 different metals are joined into a loop and
the two junctions are held at different temperatures.
• Seebeck emf – a voltage difference between the two ends
of the conductor that depends on the temperature difference
of the ends and a material property.
• If the ends of the wire have the same temperature, no emf
occurs, even if the middle of the wire is hotter or colder.

2
 • Thermocouple - Principle

HOT JUNCTION
COLD JUNCTION

VOLTMETER

Twisting or welding of 2 wires

3
 In normal operation, cold junction is placed in an ice
bath

HOT JUNCTION

COLD JUNCTION

4
 UNKNOWN
TEMPERATURE

KNOWN
TEMPERATURE

5
Types of Thermocouples
• Type K : Chromel-Alumel
• Type J : Iron-Constantan
• Type E : Chromel-Constantan
• Type N : Nicros-Nisil
• Type T : Copper-Constantan
• It is important to note that thermocouples measure the
temperature difference between two points, not
absolute temperature.

6
• Corresponding Sensitivities

7
• Magnitude of thermal EMF

E  c(T1  T2 )  k (T  T ) 1
2
2
2

where
 c and k = constants of the thermocouple materials
 T1 = the temperature of the ‘hot’ junction
 T2 = the temperature of the ‘cold’ or ‘reference’ junction

8
Example:
A thermocouple was found to have linear
calibration between 0⁰C and 400⁰C with emf at
maximum temperature (reference junction
temperature 0⁰C) equal to 20.68 mV.
a) Determine the correction which must be
made to the indicated emf if the cold junction
temperature is 25⁰C.
b) If the indicated emf is 8.82 mV in the
thermocouple circuit, determine the temperature
of the hot junction.
9
Solution:
(a) Sensitivity of the thermocouple
= 20.68/(400-0)
= 0.0517 mV/⁰C
Since the thermocouple is calibrated at the reference
junction of 0⁰C and is being used at 25⁰C, then the
correction which must be made, Ecorr between 0⁰C
and 25⁰C
Ecorr = 0.0517 x 25
Ecorr = 1.293 mV

10
(b) Indicated emf between the hot junction and
reference junction at 25⁰C = 8.92 mV.
Difference of temperature between hot and cold
junctions = 8.92/0.0517 = 172.53⁰C.
Since the reference junction temperature is 25⁰C,
hot junction temperature = 172.53 + 25 =
197.53⁰C.

11
• Thermocouple - applications
• Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over a
large temperature range, up to 1800 K.
• Example:
Type K : Chromel-Alumel (-190⁰C to 1260⁰C)
Type J : Iron-Constantan (-190⁰C to 760⁰C)
Type E : Chromel-Constantan (-100⁰C to 1260⁰C)

12
• Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over
a large temperature range, up to 1800 K.

• They are less suitable for applications where smaller

temperature differences need to be measured with high
accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C
accuracy.
• For such applications, thermistors and RTDs are more
suitable.
13
 2. Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), also called

resistance thermometers, are temperature sensors that
exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of
some materials with changing temperature.

• Temperature Metal Resistance

• The resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature.

14
• RTD unlike thermocouples are passive
sensors requiring an excitation” current to be
passed through them.
• The RTD is normally manufactured through a
known resistance typically 100 ohms at ice
point. It has positive temperature of resistance.

15
• How it works:
 Utilizes the fact that
resistance of a metal
changes with temperature.
• Make up:
 Traditionally made up of
platinum, nickel, iron or
copper wound around an
insulator.
• Temperature range:
 From about -196°C to
482°C.

Thin Film RTD

16
Advantages
•High accuracy and fast response
•Narrow span and good reproducibility
•Remains stable and accurate for many years
•Temperature compensation not necessary

Disadvantages
•High cost as compared to the thermocouple
•Large bulb size in comparison to thermocouple
• Self heating can be a problem

17
• Resistance vs Temperature Approximations

• A straight line has been drawn between the points of

the curve that represent temperature, T1 and T2, and T0
represent the midpoint temperature.

18
 RTD -Linear or Straight line equation
approximation
R(T )  R(To )[1   o T ] T1  T  T2

R(T)= approximation of resistance at temperature T

R(T0)= resistance at temperature T0
αo = fractional change in resistance per degree of temperature
at T0
ΔT= T - T0

19
 1 R2  R1
o  ( )
R (T0 ) T2  T1

R2 = resistance at T2
R1 = resistance at T1

20
• Example:

21
 RTD – quadratic approximation
• More accurate representation of R-T curve over some span
of temperatures.
R(T )  R(To )[1  1T   2 (T ) ] T1  T  T2
2

R(T) = quadratic approximation of resistance at temperature T

R(T0)= resistance at temperature T0
α1 = linear fractional change in resistance with temperature
α2 = quadratic fractional change in resistance with temperature
ΔT = T - T0

22
Example

Solution

23
 RTD - Sensitivity

• Sensitivity is shown by the value αo

Platinum – 0.004/ °C
Nickel – 0.005/ °C
• Thus, for a 100Ω platinum RTD, a change of 0.4
Ω would be expected if the temperature is
changed by 1°C.

24
Nickel
Tungsten

Copper

Platinum

Platinum: very repeatable, less sensitive,

expensive

Nickel: not quite repeatable, more sensitive,

less expensive

25
RTD – response time
• Generally 0.5 to 5 seconds or more
• The slowness of response is due to the slowness of
thermal conductivity in bringing the device into
thermal equilibrium with its environment.

26
Construction of a platinum resistance thermometer

27
Wire is in a coil to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity
to decrease response time.
28
Protect from the environment
29
3.Thermistors
• Semiconductor resistance sensors
• Unlike metals, Thermistors respond negatively to
temperature and their coefficient of resistance is of the order
of 10 times higher than that of platinum or copper.

• Temperature semiconductor resistance

• Symbol
30
• How it works:
Like the RTD a thermistor uses the fact that
resistance of a metal changes with temperature.
• Make up:
Generally made up of semiconductor materials
• Temperature Range:
About -45°C - 150°C

Thermistor 31
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
– Very sensitive (has – Output is a non-
the largest output linear function
change from input – Limited temperature
temperature) range.
– Quick response – Require a current
– More accurate than source
RTD and – Self heating
Thermocouples – Fragile

32
 Advantage of Thermistors:
• Has extremely high sensitivity. for example, a 2252 w
thermistor has a sensitivity of -100 w/°c at room temperature.
• Higher resistance Thermistors can exhibit temperature
coefficients of -10 kw/°c or more. In comparison, a 100 w
platinum RTD has a sensitivity of only 0.4 w/°c.
• Physically small size which yields a very fast response to
temperature changes.
• The thermistor has been used primarily for high-resolution
measurements over limited temperature ranges. the classic
example of this type of application is motor winding
temperature and in medical thermometry
33
• Has relatively high resistance. Thermistors are
available with base resistances (at 25° c) ranging
from hundreds to millions of ohms.
• This high resistance diminishes the effect of
inherent resistances in the lead wires, which can
cause significant errors with low resistance devices
such as RTD
• The major tradeoff for the high resistance and
sensitivity of the thermistor is its highly nonlinear
output and relatively limited operating range.
• Depending on the type of Thermistors, upper ranges
are typically limited to max 300° c.
34
Thermistors: resistance vs temperature

35
Example :
The circuit in figure below is used for temperature
measurement. The Thermistor is a 4kΩ type identified from
the standard. The meter is a 50mA ammeter with a
resistance of 3Ω, Rc is set to 17Ω and the supply voltage
VT=15V.What will be the meter readings at 77oF and at
150oF.

• Solution : From the standard graph of a 4kΩ thermistor,

the resistance at 77oF is 4kΩ. Thus the current at 77oF is

36
• At 150oF, the graph shows that the thermistor resistance is
950 Ω. The meter reading at this temperature is

37
 Applications of temperature sensing
• Food industry
 Monitor temperature-time cycles to ensure high food quality
• Automotive industry
 Combustion and exhaust temperature
• Solar Energy conversion
 Accurate temperature measurement to achieve optimal heat
flow
• Energy efficiency in the home and industry
 Measurement of temperature
• Hospital infant incubator
 Temperature must be kept in the proper range

38