ECEG-3205: Conducting Materials

UG Program
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Electrical Materials and Technology
Overview

· Conduction in conductor materials and Equation of

motion of an electron
· Fermi Dirac distribution function and the Fermi energy
of metals
· Factors Influencing Resistivity

· Thermal conductivity of conductor

· Classification and Application of Conductors

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 2

The Conduction Process
·
·  Metals are known be Good Conductors!!
· Due to large no. of free/conduction Electrons,
· Explained by Drude`s Model:

 
• Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an applied electric field.
Electrons drift with an average velocity in the x-direction.(Ex is the electric
  ≡𝐶h𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 [ 𝑐 ]
𝜌
field.) 𝑚3

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 3

The Conduction Process: Microscopic Explanation
Ex

u
x

V ib ra tin g C u + io n s V

(a) (b)
(a) A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal (with a mean
speed u) being frequently and randomly scattered by thermal vibrations of the atoms. In the
absence of an applied field there is no net drift in any direction.
(b) In the presence of an applied field, E x, there is a net drift along the x-direction. This net drift
along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of the electron. After many
scattering events the electron has been displaced by a net distance, Dx, from its initial position
toward the positive terminal

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 4

Cont.…

• The motion of a single electron in the presence of an electric field E.

• The average distance traveled by the electron between collusion (mean
fee path)   ∑ 𝒍𝒊
𝒍𝒎=
𝒏

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 5

Relaxation time
· The
  corresponding average time between collusion (mean
free time; relaxation time)

· Note: The scattering is caused by vibration of atoms (lattice

structure )

• Scattering  phonon (quantized lattice vibration)

 impurities (defects)

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 6

Drift Velocity
· 

 𝜇 ≡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 [ 𝑚 2 ]
𝑠𝑣

· If the equation substituted ;

….
Ohm's law

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 7

Example

1. Given that the mean speed of conduction electrons in

copper is 1.5 x 106 ms-1 and the mean scattering time of
conduction electrons at room temperature is about 2.5 x
10-14 s . Estimate
a. The drift mobility of electrons and Current density
b. The conductivity of copper.

· (Density of copper is 8.96 g cm-3 and the atomic mass is

63.56 gmol-1).

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 8

Example
· 
2. Discuss the frequency dependency of conductivity under
the action of alternating field;

a) Find the effect of frequency on ;

b) Find as function of frequency,
c) Find , f = 50Hz, 106Hz ,1014Hz

· Note: Consider the equation of motion of an electron

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 9

Density of States and Fermi Dirac function

· Electrons with in a solid interact quantum mechanically with

each other.: Fermi Dirac function
· (They Move in pre-defined energy level & their existence in a

certain position is probabilistic)

· Distribution of Energy states with in the band: Density of

States
· No. of state per unit energy per unit vol. within a particular band.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 10

Review on Band Theory
S y s te m o f N L i A to m s
Electron Energy in the System
 s o lid ( N ) 2p
E E
T SY STEM
EMPTY
2p
N L i A to m s
E 2s N E le c tro n s
2s
of N Li Atoms

FULL

N O rb ita ls
2 N S ta te s
E B  s o lid ( 1 )
E 1s
1s In te ra to m ic
a  S e p a ra tio n (R )
Is o la te d A to m s
S o lid
The formation of a 2s-energy band from the 2s-orbitals when N Li atoms
come together to form the Li solid. The are N 2s-electrons but 2N states in
the band. The 2s-band therefore is only half full. The atomic 1s orbital is
close to the Li nucleus and remains undisturbed in the solid. Thus each Li
atom has a closed K-shell (full 1s orbital).

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 11

Review on Band Theory( Cont.…)

F re e e le c tro n
E = 0 (V a c u u m L e v e l)
EM PTY E 3s
E le c tro n e n e rg y

E 2p
E 2s
FU LL

E 1s
In te ra to m ic
S e p a ra tio n (R )
R = a R = 
T h e S o lid Is o la te d A to m s
As solid atoms are brought together from infinity, the atomic orbitals
overlap and give rise to bands. Outer orbitals overlap first. The 3s
orbitals give rise to the 3s band, 2p orbitals to the 2p band and so on.
The various bands overlap to produce a single band in which the energy
is nearly continuous.

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 Fig

4.9
 Cont.…

E O v e rla p p in g
e n e rg y b a n d s F re e e le c tro n
E = 0
3s V a c u u m le v e l

2p
E le c tr o n E n e rg y

3p
3s
2s 2p
E le c tro n s 2s

1s 1s
S o lid A to m

In a metal the various energy bands overlap to give a single band of

energies that is only partially full of electrons. There are states with
energies up to the vacuum level where the electron is free.

Typical electron energy band diagram for a metal All the valence electrons
are in an energy band which they only partially fill. The top of the band is
the vacuum level where the electron is free from the solid (PE = 0).

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 Fig

4.10
Density of Energy State
E

  (𝑠𝑒𝑝 .𝑏𝑛 . 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑠) ∝ 1

∆
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑛 . 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

∆ 

r
· Consider N atoms within a solid, let`s see interaction of
atom in the nearest neighboring manner,

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 14

Density of State (Cont.…)
·  
N
E
 
- The total no. of
energy states below
an energy per unit
Vol.

 𝐸+𝑑𝐸
1
 𝐸
g (E )
E n e rg y B a n d
(a) (b ) (c )

(a) In the solid there are N atoms and N extended electron wavefunctions
from 1 all the way to N . There are many wavefunctions, states, that
have energies that fall in the central regions of the energy band. (b) The
distribution of states in the energy band; darker regions have higher
number of states. (c) Schematic representation of the density of states
g(E) vs. energy E.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 15

Calculating the Distribution of Energy State
·  n
· Consider an 2
2 2
n 1
+ n 2
= n '2
electron trapped in 5
potential barrier ; 4
3
n 2
n1 = 1
n2 = 3 2
1
-n 1 n 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-n n1 = 2, n2 = 2
2

Each state, electron wavefunction in the crystal, can be represented

by a box at n1,n2.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 16

 Cont.…
n3  
In h e re n 12+ n 22+ n 3
2
 n '2 Total # of states =
V o l . = 1 / 8 ( 4 / 3  n '3 ) • Taking Spin in to
consideration; the total no.
n'
of energy states per unit v.
n 2

n 1
In three dimensions, the volume defined by a sphere of radius n' and the
positive axes n1, n2 and n3, is all the possible combinations of poisitive
n1, n2 and n3, values which satisfy n12+n22+n32  n'2.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 17

Example
· 
1. Given that the width of an energy band is typically ,
calculate the following, in per cm3 and per units:
a) The density of states at the center of the band.
b) The number of states per unit volume within a small energy
range( about the center.
c) The density of states at above the bottom of the band.
d) The number of states per unit volume within a small energy
range of kT to 2kT from the bottom of the band.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 18

 Fermi-Dirac Distribution

4 · 
2 E1+E2 = E3 +E4
In te ra c tio n E
E 2
4
(Energy Conservation)

1
3
E 1 E 3
If the probability of
Occupancy ;

Two electrons initially with wavefunctions  1 and  2 at E1 and E2 The probability

interact and end up at different energies at E3 and E4. Their that it`s vacant 1-
corresponding wavefunctions are  3 and  4.
 
.
 𝐴 𝑒 𝛽 𝐸

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 19

Boltzmann Distribution
E

 e x p (-E /k T )

E 2

E 1

0 N (E )
N 1
N 2

The Boltzmann energy distribution describes the statistics of particles,

e.g. electrons, when the particles do not interact with each other, i.e.
when there are very few electrons compared with the number of
available states.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 20

 Fermi-Dirac Distribution (Cont.…)
E  
: the probability of finding e-
on particular Energy level
=
T2 > T 1 Case 1: @ T=0K0
T = 0 All electrons are below the
EF
fermi-energy level;
Case 2 : @ T=300K0
T 1 KT=0.025ev; is small

f(E )
0 1
/ 1
2

The Fermi-Dirac function, f(E), describes the statistics of electrons

in a solid. The electrons interact with each other and the
environment so that they obey the Pauili Exclusion Principle.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 21

 Concentration of electrons in a band
E E E E

E F
+ 


n E
dE  n
T K 0

E
EF
F

1 /2
g (E ) = A E
0

g (E ) 0 1/ 1 f (E ) n = g (E )f (E )
2 E

(a ) (b ) (c ) (d )

(a ) Abov e 0 K, due t o t h er ma l exc it a t ion, s ome of t h e el ec t r ons

a r e a t ener gies a bov e EF . (b) Th e dens it y of s t a t es , g(E) v s E
in t h e ba nd. (c ) Th e pr oba bil it y of oc c upa nc y of a s t a t e a t a n
ener gy E is f (E). Th e pr oduc t g(E)f (E) is t h e number of
el ec t r ons per unit ener gy per unit v ol ume or el ec t r on
c onc ent r a t ion per unit ener gy . Th e a r ea under t h e c ur v e wit h
t h e ener gy a xis is t h e c onc ent r a t ion of el ec t r ons in t h e ba nd.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 22

Concentration of electrons in a band (Cont.…)
· 
;
· Taking Consideration T=0k0 , the Fermi- energy of metals

…. Large for good conductors;

· is slightly dependent on temp. which is given as

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 23

Electron Excitation
· 
· Thermal Energy:
· electrons absorb heat & transfer it due to collusion
· Excite to higher level

· E-M wave with appropriate wave length

Explain : why when # valance e- in Mg is greater?

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 24

Example:

1. Given a density of Silver to be 10.5gcm-3 and conductivity

as 6.8x107Ω-1m-1. Find
a. The Fermi-energy
b. The Fermi- Velocity & Temp.
c. Relaxation time

2. Q 2-3 on page 76 of Alison

3. Q4.8-4.10 on 366-367 of Kasap

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 25