ISYE6087 - Introduction to
Manufacturing Processes
Week 3
Mechanical Behavior, Testing and
Manufacturing Properties of Materials
Mechanical Behavior, Testing
and Manufacturing Properties
of Materials
Introduction
• Tensile Properties
• Tensile Test Specimen
• Tensile Test Setup
• Tensile-test Specimen and machine
• Tensile : Stress–Strain Curves
• Tensile : Ductility
• Tensile : True stress and True strain
Compression
Torsion
Bending(Flexure)
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Mechanical properties of a material determine its
behaviour when subjected to mechanical stresses.
These properties include elastic modulus, ductility,
hardness, and various measures of strength.
Mechanical properties are important in design
because the function and performance of a product
depend on its capacity to resist deformation under
the stresses encountered in service.
Introduction
A wide variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials is
now available with a wide range of properties
TENSILE PROPERTIES
Tensile Properties
• Tension test is a method for determining the
mechanical properties of materials
• Specimen has an original gage length, lo, and a
cross-sectional area, Ao
• Specimen can be tested at different temperatures
and rates of deformation
Tensile Test Specimen
• ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
specifies preparation of test specimen
Figure Tensile test:
(b) typical test
specimen
Tensile Test Setup
Tensile-test Specimen
and machine
Figure (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after
pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A tensile-
test sequence showing different stages in the elongation of the
specimen.
Tensile :
Stress–Strain Curves
• When the load is first applied, the specimen
elongates in proportion to the load called linear
elastic behavior
• Engineering
P stress (nominal stress) is defined as
A0
P = applied load (N)
A0 = original cross sectional area (mm 2)
= engineering stress (MPa @ N/mm2),
• Engineering strain is
e
l l0 l = instantaneous length /
l = original length (mm)
o
length at any point during elongation
l0 (mm)
e = engineering strain (mm/mm)
Tensile :
Stress–Strain Curves
• As load increased, specimen begins nonlinear elastic
deformation at a stress called the proportional limit
• Permanent (plastic) deformation occurs when the
yield stress, Y, is reached
• Y is defined by drawing a line with the
same slope as the linear elastic curve
• Yield stress is the stress where 0.2%
offset line intersects the
stress–strain curve
• Cross-sectional area decreases
permanently and uniformly
throughout gage length
Tensile :
Stress–Strain Curves
• Maximum engineering stress is called the tensile
strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
𝐹 𝑚𝑎𝑥
TS (UTS) = 𝐴 o
F max = applied load reaches a maximum value
A0 = original cross sectional area
TS and Y are important strength properties in design
calculations.
Tensile :
Stress–Strain Curves
• Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
Tensile :
Stress–Strain Curves
• When specimen is loaded beyond its ultimate tensile
strength, it begins to neck
• Engineering stress at fracture is called breaking or
fracture stress
• Modulus of elasticity, E, or Young’s modulus in the
elastic region is
E E = modulus of elasticity (Mpa)
e
• Linear relationship is known as Hooke’s law
• Higher the E value, higher the stiffness of the
material
• Ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is known
as Poisson’s ratio, v
Tensile :
Ductility
• Ductility is the extent of plastic deformation that the
material undergoes before fracture
• Total elongation of the specimen is
Elongation
l f l0
100
l0
EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length at
fracture; and Lo = original specimen
length
• Second measure of ductility
is the reduction of area
Reduction area
A 0 Af
100
A0
Tensile :
True stress and True strain
• Engineering stress is based on the original cross-
sectional area, Ao , of the specimen
• Engineering stress does not represent the actual
stress
P
• as
True stress is defined
A
• True strain (natural or logarithmic strain) is defined
as l
ln
l
0
Tensile : Practice
Example :
• A tensile test specimen has a starting gage length
50 mm and a cross-sectional area 200 mm2.
During the test, the specimen yields under a load
of 32,000 N (this is the 0.2% offset) at a gage
length of 50.2 mm. The maximum load of 65,000
N is reached at a gage length of 57.7 mm just
before necking begins. Final fracture occurs at a
gage length of 63.5 mm. Determine (a) yield
strength, (b) modulus of elasticity, (c) tensile
strength, (d) engineering strain at maximum load,
and (e) percent elongation.
Tensile : Practice
Solution :
(a) Yield strength Y 32,000/200 = 160 MPa.
(b) Subtracting the 0.2% offset, engineering strain e
(50.2 - 50.0)/50.0 - 0.002 = 0.002
Rearranging Equation (3.3), modulus of elasticity E =
s/e =
160/0.002 = 80,000 MPa.
(c) Tensile strength maximum load divided by original
area:
TS = 65,000/200 = 325 MPa.
(d) By Equation (3.2), engineering strain at maximum
load e
(57.7 – 50)/50 = 0.154.
(e) Defined in Equation (3.4), percent elongation EL
COMPRESSION
Compression
• Compression test is where specimen is subjected to
a compressive load
• Carried out by compressing a solid cylindrical
specimen between two well-lubricated flat dies
• Slender specimens can buckle during this test
• Cross-sectional area of the specimen will change
along its height and obtaining the stress–strain
curves in compression is difficult
• When results of compression and tension tests on
ductile metals are compared, true stress–true strain
curves coincide
Compression
• Behavior is not true for brittle materials as they are
stronger and more ductile in compression than in
tension
• When a metal is subjected to tension into the plastic
range, the yield stress in compression is lower than
that in tension
• Phenomenon known as Bauschinger effect
Compression
Disk Test
• Disk test is where a disk is subjected to
compression between two hardened flat plates
• Tensile stresses develop perpendicular to the
vertical centerline along the disk
• Fracture begins and the disk splits in half vertically
• Tensile stress in the disk is
2P
dt
P = load at fracture
d = diameter of the disk
t = thickness
TORSION
Torsion
• A workpiece may be subjected to shear strains
• Torsion test can be used to determine properties of
materials in shear
• Performed on a thin tubular specimen
• The shear stress can be calculated from the formula
T
2r 2t
T = torque
r = average radius of the tube
t = thickness of the tube at its narrow section
Torsion
• Shear strain can be calculated from
r
l
l = length of tube subjected to torsion
Φ = angle of twist in radians
• Ratio of shear stress to the shear strain in the elastic
range is called shear modulus, or modulus of
rigidity, G
• G is a quantity related to the modulus of elasticity E
BENDING (FLEXURE)
Bending (Flexure)
• Test method for brittle materials is the bend or
flexure test
• Involves a specimen that has a rectangular cross
section and is supported
• The longitudinal stresses are tensile at their lower
surfaces and compressive at their upper surfaces
• The stress at fracture in bending is known as the
modulus of rupture, or transverse rupture
strength
References
• Serope Kalpakjian; Stephen R. Schmid. (2014).
Manufacturing Engineering & Technology. Pearson. UK.
ISBN: 9789810694067.
• Groover, M. P. (2013). Fundamental of modern
manufacturing. 111 River Street, Hoboken (NJ). US.ISBN :
9781118231463.
Thank You
