+

BKC3492
SEPARATION PROCESS

Dr. Zulkifly Jemaat

2020/2021-I

Chapter 1
Drying
1
+ Introduction
2

 Drying
 -
 Evaporation
 -
 Water also can be removed mechanically from solid materials by means of
presses, centrifuging and other methods
 Drying is usually the final processing step before packaging and makes many
material more suitable for handling (i.e. soap powder, dye, etc.)
 Drying or dehydration of biological materials (especially food) is used as a
preservation techniques.
 Microorganisms are not active when the water content is less than 10%,
normally foods are dried less than 5% water content to preserve flavor and
nutrition.
+ Methods of Drying
3

 Based on operation
 Batch –
 Continuous –
 Based on physical conditions used to add heat or remove water vapor
 Direct contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure, and water vapor
formed is removed by the air.
 Vacuum drying – evaporation is enhanced by lowering the pressure over
the wet material and heat may be added by direct contact with a metal tray
holding the wet material or by radiation (IR).
 Freeze drying – Low pressures and temperatures are employed to cause the
water to sublime from a solid state (ice).
+ Equipment for Drying
4

Vacuum-Shelf Continuous
Tray Dryer
Indirect Dryers Tunnel Dryers

Rotary Dryers Drum Dryers Spray Dryers

Vertical
Continuous-Flow
Grain Dryer
+ Tray Dryer
5

 In tray dryers, the material is spread out, generally quite thinly, on trays in
which the drying takes place.
 Heating may be by an air current sweeping across the trays, by conduction
from heated trays or heated shelves on which the trays lie, or by radiation
from heated surfaces.
 Most tray dryers are heated by air, which also removes the moist vapours.
+ Continuous Tunnel Dryers
6

 Tunnel dryer trucks

 Screen conveyor dryer
+ Rotary Dryer
7

 Hollow cylinder which is rotated and usually slightly inclined toward the outlet
 Being heated either by air flow through the cylinder, or by conduction of heat
from the cylinder walls
+ Drum Dryer
8

 The material is spread over the surface of a heated drum.

 The drum rotates, with the material is applied to the drum at one part of the cycle.
 The material remains on the drum surface for the greater part of the rotation, during which time
the drying takes place, and is then scraped off.
 Suitable for handling slurries or pastes of solids in fine suspension or solution
+ Spray Dryer
9

 In a spray dryer, liquid or fine solid material in a slurry is sprayed in the form of a fine droplet
dispersion into a current of heated air.
 Air and solids may move in parallel or counterflow.
 Drying occurs very rapidly, so that this process is very useful for materials that are damaged by
exposure to heat for any appreciable length of time.
 The dryer body is large so that the particles can settle, as they dry, without touching the walls on
which they might otherwise stick.
 The dried solids leave at the bottom of the chamber through a screw conveyor.
 The exhaust gases flow through a cyclone separator to remove any fines
 Commercial dryers can be very large of the order of 10 m diameter and 20 m high.
+ Spray Dryer Animation 1
10
+ Spray Dryer Animation 2
11
+ Vapor Pressure of Water
12

 Can be read from steam table in Appendix A2

+ Humidity
13

 Humidification –
 Dehumidification –
 Humidity, H – the kg of water vapor contained in 1 kg of dry air.

 Saturated air is air in which the water vapor is in equilibrium with liquid
water at given T an P. In this mixture the partial pressure of the water vapor is
equal to the vapor pressure pAS of pure water at given T
 Saturation humidity, Hs –

 Percentage humidity, Hp –

 Percentage relative humidity, HR –

+ Humidity
14

 Dew point –

 Humid heat, cS - amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of

dry air plus the watervapor present by 1 K.
cS (kJ/kg dry air.K) = 1.005 + 1.88H (SI)
where, cP water(v) = 1.88 kJ/kg water vapor. K; cP air = 1.005 kJ/kg dry air. K
 Humid volume, vH - total volume (m3) of 1 kg of dry air plus the vapor it
contains at 1 atm abs pressure and the given gas temp.
vH (m3/kg dry air) = (2.83 x 10-3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T (K).
 Total enthalpy of an air-water mixture, HY - the total enthalpy of 1 kg of air
plus its water vapor/ or sensible heat of the air-water vapor mixture plus the
latent heat if Tref for both components = 0 ºC


+ Example 9.3-1
15

The air in the room is at 26.7C and a pressure of 101.325 kPa and
contains water vapor with a partial pressure pA = 2.7 kPa. Calculate

i) Humidity
ii) Hs and Hp
iii) Hr
+ Humidity Chart/Psychometrics Chart
16

Air entering a dryer has a dry bulb temperature of 60C

and a dew point of 26.7C. Determine, H, H p, cs and vH
+ Adiabatic Saturation Temperature, TS
17

 The steady-state temperature attained when a large amounts of water is contacted

with the entering gas.
 The leaving air is saturated at at Ts having a humidity Hs.
 Enthalpy balance (Ts is ref T)

enthalpy of the entering gas mixture = enthalpy of the leaving gas mixture.

cS  T  TS   HS  cS  TS  TS   H S S

H - H S cS 1.005 +1.88H
= =
T - TS l S lS
 If a gas mixture at T1 and H1 is contact for sufficiently long time in adiabatic contactor, it will leaves saturated at Ts1
and Hs1.
 The values of Hs1 and Ts1 are determined by following the adiabatic saturation line going through point T1, H1 until
it intersect the 100% saturation line.
 If contact is not sufficient, the leaving mixture will be at a percentage saturation less than 100% bit on the same line.
+ Example 9.3-3
18

An air stream at 87.8 ºC having a humidity H = 0.030 kg H2O/kg dry

air is contacted in an adiabatic saturator with water. It is cooled and
humidified to 90 % saturation.
a) What are the final values of H and T ?
b) For 100 % saturation, what would be the values of H and T ?

Solution,
(a) The adiabatic saturation curve through this point is followed
upward to the left until it intersects the 90 % line at 42.5 ºC and H
= 0.0500 kg H2O/kg dry air.
(b) The same line is followed to 100 % saturation, where T = 40.5 ºC
and H = 0.0505 kg H2O/kg dry air.
+ Wet Bulb Temperature TW
19

 Steady-state nonequilibrium temperature reached when a small amount of water is contacted

under adiabatic conditions by a continuous stream of gas.
 The amount of liquis is small so the T and H of the gas is not changed
 Method to measure Tw – thermometer is cover by wet wick or cloth
 A steady state water is evaporating to the gas stream. The water and wick cooled to Tw and stay at
this constant temperature.
 Latent heat of evaporation is balance by the convective heat flowing from the gas stream at T to
the wick temperature Tw
 The below equation can be assumed quite similar with adiabatic saturation lines with reasonable
accuracy
 Hence wet bulb detrmination is often used to measure the humidity of an air-water vapor mixture

H  HW h M Bk y

T  TW W
+ Example 9.3-4
20

A water vapor-air mixture having a dry bulb temperature of T =60C is

passed over a wet bulb. The wet bulb temperature obtained is 29.5C.
What is the humidity of the mixture.
+ Equilibrium Moisture Content Of Materials
21

 A definite moisture content attain when the wet solid is exposing to

the large excess air of air having constant T and H.
 Expressed as kg of water per kg of moisture-free (bone-dry) solid or
kg H20/100 kg dry solid
 Depend on the direction from which the equilibrium is reached
 In drying, wet sample is allowed to dry by desorption
 If the material contains less moisture than it equilibrium value, it will
adsorb water until reaches its equilibrium value.
 Depends upon the structure of the solid, the temp. of the gas, & the
moisture content of the gas.
 Varies greatly with the type of material for given % relative humidity
(Fig. 9.4-1 & 9.4-2)
+ Equilibrium Moisture Content Of Materials 22
+ Equilibrium Moisture Content Of Materials
23
+ Equilibrium Moisture Content Of Materials
24

 Bound water

 Unbound water

 substances containing bound water is called hygroscopic materials

 Free moisture content
+ Experimental Determination 25

Rate Of Drying Curves

 solid placed on a tray
 only top surface exposed to air stream
 tray suspended from a balance
 record loss in weight during drying
 conditions closely resemble actual large-scale operations
 ratio of drying to nondrying surface, bed depth, velocity, humidity, temperature, &
direction of air.
 Free moisture content, X

Where W = weight of wet solid at given time, Ws= weight of dry solid
 To obtain rate of drying R: get slopes of tangents (dX/dt) at different values of t.

Where, Ls = kg of dry solid used; A = exposed surface area for drying.

+ Drying Rate Curve
26

Free Moisture Content vs Time

 ff
+ Drying Rate Curve
27

Rate vs Free Moisture Content Line A-B: unsteady-state

 Xc - critical free moisture content adjustment period; short
 Insufficient water on surface for continuous film of and often ignored
water.
 Entire surface no longer wetted and the area
continually decrease until the surface is completely
dry Point A’ - initial free
 Linear rate moisture content if solid
if hot than the ultimate
temp.

Point A - initial free

moisture content if solid if
cold than the ultimate
temp.

 Solid surface very wet initially and continuous film

of water exist on drying surface.
 Second falling rate begin when the  This water is entirely unbound water
surface is completely dry  Rate of evaporation independent of the solid and
 Evaporation from interior of solid same as rate of a free liquid surface.
 Sometimes, this rate is completely  However, roughness of solid surface , rate .
missing or may constitute with first  For porous surface, water continuously replaced by
falling rate period liquid from interior.
+ Calculation Methods For
28

Constant-Rate Drying Period

Using Experimental Drying Curve

 For free moisture vs time plot
 read off the time for specific initial and final moisture content
 Using rate of drying curve equation
 Integrate over the time interval for drying from Xinitial to Xfinal
+ Calculation Methods For
29

Constant-Rate Drying Period

Using Predicted Transfer Coefficients
 Drying occur by mass transfer of water vapor from saturated surface through an air film to
the bulk gas phase
 The rate of moisture movement within the solid is sufficient to keep the surface saturated

 The rate of water vapor removal is controlled by the rate of heat transfer to the
evaporating surface, which furnished the latent heat of vaporization
 At steady state, rate of mass transfer = rate of heat transfer.
 Assumptions:
 Only convective heat transfer to solid surface from hot gas to surface.
 Mass transfer is from surface to hot gas.

A = exposed drying area (m2)

T, Tw = temperature of gas & surface of solid,
respectively (ºC).
w = latent heat at Tw (J/kg)
MA, MB = molecular weight of water & air,
respectively.
h = heat-transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
Ky = mass transfer coefficient (kmol/s.m2)
H, Hw = humidity
+ Calculation Methods For
30

Constant-Rate Drying Period

Using Predicted Transfer Coefficients
 It is found to be more reliable to use heat transfer coefficient, h than mass transfer
coefficient since an error in determine the interface temperature Tw affects the
driving force (T-Tw) is less than it affects (Hw-H)

Case 1: Air flowing parallel to the drying surface

h = 0.0204G 0.8 (SI)

 Condition: T = 45 – 150 ºC, G = 2450 – 29,300 kg/h.m2 (G, mass velocity = v) v
= 0.61 – 7.6 m/s

Case 2: Air flowing perpendicular to the surface

h = 1.17G 0.37 (SI)

 Condition: G = 3900 – 19,500 kg/h.m2; v = 0.9 – 4.6 m/s

+ Example 9.6-3
31

An insoluble wet granular material is dried in a pan 0.457 x 0.457 m

and 25.4 mm deep. The material is 25.4 mm deep in the pan, and the
sides and bottom can be considered to be insulated. Heat transfer is by
convection from an air stream flowing parallel to the surface at a
velocity of 6.1 m/s. The air is at 65.6 ºC and has a humidity of 0.010 kg
H2O/kg dry air. Estimate the rate of drying for the constant-rate period.
+ Solution Example 9.6-3
32

For a humidity H= 0.010 and dry bulb temperature of 65.6 ºC and using the humidity chart, the wet bulb temperature T W is found
as 28.9ºC and HW = 0.026 by following the adiabatic saturation line to the saturated humidity. The humid volume is calculated
as
vH = (2.83 x 10-3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T (K).
= (2.83 x 10-3 + 4.56 x 10-3 (0.01))(273 + 65.6).
= 0.974 m3/kg dry air
+ Combined Convection, Radiation and Conduction Heat
33

Transfer in Constant Rate Period

 Total rate of heat transfer to the drying surface is
q = qc + qR + qK
qC – convective heat transfer from gas T to the solid surface T s
qR – radiant heat transfer from the surface at TR to Ts
qK – conduction heat transfer from the bottom
qC =hC (T - Ts )A
qR =hR (TR - Ts )A
4 4
æT (K )R ö æT (K )S ö
ç ÷- ç ÷
è 100 ø è 100 ø
hR =e(5.676)
TR - Ts

q (h +U K )(T - Ts ) + hR (TR - Ts ) qK =U K (T - Ts )A
RC = = C =k y M B (H S - H )
Al S lS 1
UK =
1 / hC + zM / kM + zS / ks
(H S - H )l S
=(1+U K / hC )(T - Ts ) +(hR / hC )(TR - Ts )
hC / ky M B zM – metal thickness in m, kM – metal thermal conductivity
in W/m.K, zS – solid thickness in m, kS – solid thermal
hC / k y M B =cs =(1.005 +1.88H )103 conductivity, hc assumed to be same as convective heat
transfer coefficient
+ Calculation Methods For
34

Falling-Rate Drying Period

 The rate of drying is not constant in the falling rate period
 For any shape of falling rate drying curve, drying time can be determined by
numerically or graphically finding the area under the curve for plot 1/r vs X

LS dX LS X1 dX
t = ò dt = ò
t2
R =- ; rearrange
Special Case: R =AaX+b
dt (linear) and both X1 and tX2 A than R
X2
1
are less Xc

Special Case: R = aX (linear function through origin)

or and
X
R  RC
XC
+ Example 9.7-1
35

A batch of wet solid whose drying-rate curve is represented by Fig. 9.5-

1b is to be dried from a free moisture content of X1 = 0.38 kg H 2O/kg
dry solid to X2 = 0.04 kg H2O/kg dry solid. The weight of the dry solid
is LS = 399 kg dry solid and A = 18.85 m2 of top drying surface.
Calculate the time of drying. Note that LS/A = 399/18.85 = 21.5 kg/m2
+ Example 9.8-1
36
+ Drying In Falling Rate Period By Diffusion or
37

Capillary Flow
 In the falling rate period, the surface of the solid being dried is no longer
completely wetted, and the rate of drying steadily falls with time.
 Previously, empirical method were used to predict the time of drying
 Also, the actual rate-of-drying curve was numerically or graphically
integrated to determine the time of drying
 In another method, an approximately straight line between critical free
moisture content to the origin at zero free moisture was assumed (R=aX)
 Rate of moisture movement in falling rate period-governed by the rate of
internal movement of the liquid by liquid diffusion or capillary movement

LS dX
R =- =aX
A dt
dX aA
=- X
dt LS
+ Drying In Falling Rate Period By Diffusion
38

 Diffusion in the solid control the drying process

 Relatively slow drying in non-granular material (e.g. soap, gelatin,
glue) and later stages of drying of bound water (e.g. in wood, textiles,
leather, paper, foods, starches)
 Difficulty in analyzing drying data – initial moisture distribution is
not uniform throughout the solid
 During drying period – resistance to mass transfer of water vapor
from the surface is usually small

lS dX p 2 LS DL
R =- = 2
X
A dt 4x1 A
+ Example 9.9-1
39

The experimental average diffusion coefficient of moisture in a given

wood is 2.97x10-6m2/h (3.2x10-5ft2/h). Large planks of wood 25.4mm
thick are dried from both sides by air having a humidity such that the
equilibrium moisture content in the wood is X* = 0.04 kg H2O/ kg dry
wood. The wood is to dried from a total average moisture content of
Xt1 = 0.29 to Xt = 0.09. Calculate the time needed.
+ Drying In Falling Rate Period Capillary Flow
40

 Water can flow from regions of high concentration to low concentration region
as a result of capillary action rather than by diffusion if the pore sizes of the
granular materials are suitable.
 Capillary Theory
 Assumes that a packed bed of non-porous spheres contains a void space between the
sphere called pores
 As water is evaporated, capillary forces are set-up by the interfacial tension between
water and solid
 These forces provide driving force for moving the water through the pores to the
drying surface
 Since the mechanism of evaporation during this period is the same as during the
constant period, the effects of variables gas velocity, temperature of gas, humidity of
gas and so on will be the same as for the constant rate drying period
+ Through Circulation Drying In Packed Beds
41

 The granular solids are arranged on a screen so that the gas passes through
the screen and through the open spaces or voids between the solid particles.
 For constant rate period

 For falling rate period

S = density of solid
W = latent heat at TW
x1 = bed thickness
X1, XC = free moisture content at point 1 and 2, respectively.
G = gas mass velocity (kg/s.m2)
cS = humid heat of the air-water vapor mixture (kJ/kg dry air. K)
T1 = temperature of entering gas
TW = wet bulb temperature of solid
h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
a = surface area of solids/m3 bed volume.
+ Through Circulation Drying In Packed Beds
42

 Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K) for through circulation drying:

Gt0.59 DpGt
h =0.151 0.41 for > 350
Dp m
Gt0.49 DG
h =0.214 0.51 for p t < 350
Dp m

DP = diameter of a sphere having the same surface area as the particle in the bed (m),
for cylinder Dp = (DC hC + 0.5 D2C)0.5
Gt = total mass velocity entering the bed (kg/h.m 2)
 = viscosity (kg/m.h)

 Surface area of solids/m3 bed volume, a:

 packed bed for spherical particles 6 ( 1- e)
a=
Dp

 cylindrical particles 4 ( 1- e) ( h + 0.5DC )

a=
DC h
+ Example 9.10-1
43
+ Tray Drying With Varying Air Conditions
44

 Time of drying for the constant-rate period

 Time of drying for falling-rate period (approximately)

b = spacing between the trays (m)

G = dry air flow (kg dry air/s. m 2 cross-sectional area)
Lt = length of tray (m)
+ Material & Heat Balance on Continuous Dryer
45

 Material balance on moisture/water

 Heat balance with T ref = 0C

+ Air Recirculation in Dryer
46

 reduce costs & control humidity (hence controlling the wet bulb
temperature)
 part of the moist hot air is recycled & combined with fresh air.
+ Continuous Countercurrent Drying
47

 Advantages;
 smaller dryers
 uniform moisture content products.
 Solid is moved through the dryer while in contact with moving gas
stream that may flow parallel or countercurrent
 countercurrent adiabatic operation  entering hot gas contacting
leaving dried solid.
 parallel adiabatic operation  entering hot gas contacting entering
wet solid.
+ Continuous Countercurrent Drying
48

 preheat zone:
 solid heated up to TW (TS)
 little evaporation
 ignored for low-temperature drying.
 constant-rate zone I:
 unbound & surface moisture evaporate
 Falling rate zone II
 Unsaturated surface and bound moisture are evaporated
+ Exercise
49

A continuous countercurrent dryer is being used to dry 453.6 kg dry

solid/h containing 0.04 kg total moisture/kg dry solid to a value of
0.002 kg total moisture/kg dry solid. The granular solid enters at 15.6ºC
and is to be discharged at 60 ºC. The dry solid has a heat capacity of
1.465 kJ/kg.K, which is assumed constant. Heating air enters at 87.8ºC,
having a humidity of 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air, and is to be leave at 32.2
ºC. Calculate the air flow rate and the outlet humidity, if heat losses
from the dryer are at 2931 W.
+ 50

THANK YOU