PLAN

CHAPTER 3
Transfer functions
and block diagrams

1. Transfer Functions
2. Block Diagrams
3. Signal Flow Graph
4. Mason’s gain formula
Transfer Function (TF)
Definition
The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input
(excitation function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

Consider the linear system defined by the following differential equation:

y(n)  an1 y(n1)  a1 y  a0 y 

bmu(m)  bm1u(m1)  bu
1  b0u ;
 mn

where u and y are the input and the output of the system, respectively.

After applying Laplace transform to the previous differential equation with initial
conditions are set to zero, it follows the transfer function:

Y (s) bmsm  bm1sm1  b1s  b0

G(s)   n
U(s) s  an1sn1  a1s  a0
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Block Diagrams
Definition
The block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation which depends on each
component of this system. Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist
among all these components.

In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks. The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical
operation on the input signal to the block that produces the output.

Figure 3.1 Element of a block diagram.

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Block Diagrams

Summing point
a circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing operation. The plus or
minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be added or
subtracted.

Figure 3.2 Summing point (comparator).

Branch point
A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other
blocks or summing points.

Figure 3.3 Branch point.

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Block diagram of a closed-loop system

The following is an example of a block diagram of a closed-loop system. The

output Y(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with the
reference input R(s).

The output of the block is obtained by multiplying the transfer function G(s) by the
input to the block E(s). Any linear control system may be represented by a block
diagram consisting of blocks summing points and branch points.

Figure 3.4 Block diagram of a closed-loop system.

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 Block diagram and transfer function
Consider the following closed loop system:

Figure 3.5 Closed-loop system.

The ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called
the open loop transfer function. That is

B(s)
 G(s)H(s)
E(s)
The ratio of the output Y(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called
the feedforward transfer function. That is

Y (s)
 G(s)
E(s) 6
Transfer function of a closed-loop system

Eliminating E(s) from these equations gives

Figure 3.6 Closed-loop system.

Y (s) 1 G(s)H(s)  G(s)R(s)

The transfer function relating Y(s) to R(s) is called the closed-loop transfer
function. This transfer function of the closed loop system relates the feedforward
elements to the feedback elements as follows:

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Block diagram of an automatic control system
An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with the
reference input (desired value or set point) to determine the error. It produces
a control signal that will reduce this error as much as possible (zero or a small
value).

The below diagram consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant

(system) and a sensor (measurement element).

Figure 3.7 Block diagram of a closed-loop control system

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Elements of an automatic control system

 Controller: It detects the error signal. Thereafter, the output of an automatic

controller is fed to an actuator, such as an electric motor, a hydraulic motor, or
a pneumatic motor or valve, etc.

 Actuator: is a power device that produces the input to the plant according to
the control signal so that the output signal will approach the reference input
signal.

 Plant: is the system or process to be controlled

 Sensor or measuring element: is a device that converts the output

variable into another suitable variable, such as a displacement, pressure, or
voltage, that can be used to compare the output to the reference input signal.
This element is in the feedback path of the closed-loop system. The set point
must have the same units as the feedback signal obtained from the sensor or
measuring element.

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Block diagram of a closed-loop
closed-loop system
system subject to disturbances

When two inputs (the reference input and the disturbance input) are applied to
a linear system, each input can be treated independently of the other; and the
outputs corresponding to each input alone can be added to give the complete
output.

Figure 3.8 Closed-loop system subject to a disturbance.

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Transfer function of a closed-loop system subject to disturbances

Transfer function of a disturbed system

Y (s)  G2 (s) D(s)  G1(s)E(s)

= G2 (s) D(s)  G1 (s)  R(s)  H(s)Y (s) 

Y (s)  G2 (s)D(s)  G2 (s)G1(s)R(s)  G2 (s)G1(s)H(s)Y (s)

Y (s) 1 G1(s)G2 (s)H(s)  G2 (s)D(s)  G1 (s)G2 (s)R(s)

G2 (s) G1 (s)G2 (s)

Y (s)  D(s)  R(s)
1 G1 (s)G2 (s)H(s) 1 G1 (s)G2 (s)H(s)
Where D(s) and R(s) are the inputs of the system and Y(s) is its output
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Procedures for drawing a block diagram

Block diagram of an RC circuit

Figure 3.9 RC circuit.

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Procedures for drawing a Block Diagram

Figure 3.10 Block diagram of an RC circuit.

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Rules of simplifying block diagrams

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15
Simplifying block diagrams

Example: Simplify the block diagram of the following system:

Step 1

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Simplifying block diagrams
Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

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Signal Flow Graphs

Definition
A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear
algebraic equations. It consists of a network in which nodes are connected by
directed branches. Each node represents a variable of the system, and each
branch connected between two nodes acts as a signal multiplier.

Figure 3.11 Signal flow graph.

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Signal Flow Graphs

Terminologies

 Node: is a point representing a variable or signal.

 Transmittance: is a real gain between two nodes.

 Branch: is a direct line segment joing two nodes. The gain of a branch is
a transmittance.

 Input node or source: is a node that has only outgoing branches. This

corresponds to an independant variable.

 Output node or sink: is a node that has only incoming branches. This
corresponds to an independant variable.

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Signal Flow Graphs
Example: Consider the following signal flow graph:

Figure 3.12 Example of a signal flow graph.

This signal flow graph is described by the following set of equations:

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Block diagrams and corresponding Signal Flow Graphs

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Block diagrams and corresponding Signal Flow Graphs

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Mason’s gain Formula for Signal Flow Graphs

Mason’s gain Formula:

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Signal Flow Graphs and Control Systems

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Signal Flow Graphs and Control Systems

Example 3:

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Mason’s Gain Formula for Signal Flow Graphs

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Signal Flow Graphs and Control Systems
Example 4:

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Mason’s Gain Formula for Signal Flow Graphs

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