Introduction to Sociology: Culture and

Society(4681)
) Autumn 2020

Course Coordinator :Nasim Khan Mahsud

Course Resource Person: Qaisar Abbas
[email protected]

Allam Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Introduction to Sociology: Culture
and Society (4681)
 Learning Objectives

 Define the term sociology

 Understand how sociology emerged and developed
 Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
 Sociology as Science
 Describe the subject-matter, scope and basic concerns of
sociology
 Significance of Sociology
 What is Sociology?

Before attempting to define what sociology is, let us look

at what the popular conceptions of the discipline seem. As
may be the case with other sciences, sociology is often
misconceived among the populace. Though many may
rightly and grossly assumption that sociology is about
people, some think that it is all about “helping the
unfortunate and doing welfare work, while others think that
sociology is the same as socialism and is a means of bringing
revolution to our schools and colleges”
 The first social scientist to use the term sociology was a
Frenchman by the name of Auguste Comte who lived from
1798-1857. As coined by Comte, the term sociology is a
combination of two words. The first part of the term is a Latin,
socius- that may variously mean society, association,
togetherness or companionship. The other word, logos, is of
Greek origin. It literally means to speak about or word.
However, the term is generally understood as study or science
(Indrani, 1998). Thus, the etymological, literal definition of
sociology is that it is the word or speaking about society.
 A simple definition here is that it is the study of society
and culture. Although the term “sociology” was first used by
the French social philosopher august Comte, the discipline
was more firmly established by such theorists as Emile
Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber (Nobbs, Hine and
Flemming, 1978).
A more formal definition of sociology may be that it is a
social science which studies the processes and patterns of
human individual and group interaction, the forms of
organization of social groups, the relationship among them,
and group influences on individual behavior, and vice versa,
and the interaction between one social group and the other.
 Sociology is the scientific study of society, which is
interested in the study of social relationship between people in
group context. Sociology is interested in how we as human
beings interact with each other (the pattern of social
interaction); the laws and principles that govern social
relationship and interactions; the influence of the social world
on the individuals, and vice versa (Ibid.). It deals with a
factually observable subject matter, depends upon empirical
research, and involves attempts to formulate theories and
generalizations that will make sense of facts (Giddens, 1982).
 Brief Historical Overview
Sociology and other social sciences emerged from a
common tradition of reflection of social phenomena; interest
in the nature of human social behavior and society has
probably always existed; however, most people in most past
societies saw their culture as a fixed and God-given entity.
This view gradually was replaced by more rational
explanations beginning from the 17 th century especially in
Western Europe (Rosenberg, 1987). The sociological issues,
questions and problems had been raised and discussed by the
forerunners starting from the ancient Greek and Roman
philosophers' and Hebrew prophets' times.
 Sociology as an academic science was thus born in 19 th
century (its formal establishment year being 1837) in Great
Britain and Western Europe, especially in France and
Germany, and it greatly advanced through out 19 th and 20th
centuries. The development of sociology and its current
contexts have to be grasped in the contexts of the major
changes that have created the modern world (Giddens,
1986). Further, sociology originated in 18th century
philosophy, political economy and cultural history
(Swingwood, 1991)
 The major conditions, societal changes, upheavals and
social disturbances that gave rise to the emergence and
development of sociology as an academic science include
the Industrial Revolution which began in Great Britain, the
French Political Revolution of 1789, the Enlightenment and
advances in natural sciences and technology. These
revolutions had brought about significant societal changes
and disorders in the way society lived in the aforementioned
countries. Since sociology was born amidst the great socio-
political and economic and technological changes of the
western world, it is said to be the science of modern society.
 The pioneering sociologists were very much concerned
about the great changes that were taking place and they felt
that the exciting sciences could not help understand,
explain, analyze and interpret the fundamental laws that
govern the social phenomena. Thus sociology was born out
of these revolutionary contexts. The founders or the
pioneering sociologists are the following (Henslin and
Nelson, 1995; Giddens, 1996; Macionis, 1997):
Auguste Comte, French Social Philosopher
(1798- 1857)
Comte was the first social philosopher to coin and use
the term sociology (Nobbs, Hine and Flemming, 1978). He
was also the first to regard himself as a sociologist. He
defined sociology as the scientific study of social dynamics
and social static. He argued that sociology can and should
study society and social phenomena following the pattern
and procedures of the natural science. Comte believed that a
theoretical science of society and the systematic
investigation of human behavior were needed to improve
society.
 He argued that the new science of society could and
should make a critical contribution towards a new and
improved human society. Comte defined sociology as the
study of social dynamic and social static, the former
signifying the changing, progressing and developmental
dimensions of society, while the latter refers to the social
order and those elements of society and social phenomena
which tend to persist and relatively permanent, defying
change.
 Karl Marx (German, 1818-1883)

Marx was a world-renowned social philosopher,

sociologist and economic historian. He made remarkable
contributions to the development of various social sciences
including sociology. He contributed greatly to sociological
ideas. He introduced key concepts in sociology like social
class, social class conflict, social oppression, alienation,
etc. Marx, like Comte, argued that people should make
active efforts to bring about societal reforms.
 According to Marx, economic forces are the keys to
underestimating society and social change. He believed
that the history of human society has been that of class
conflict. He dreamed of, and worked hard towards
realizing, a classless society, one in which there will be
no exploitation and oppression of one class by another,
and wherein all individuals will work according to their
abilities and receive according to their needs. Marx
introduced one of the major perspectives in sociology,
called social conflict theory (Macionis, 1997)
Herbert Spencer, British Social Philosopher,
(1820-1903)
Spencer was a prominent social philosopher of
the 19th century. He was famous for the organic
analogy of human society. He viewed society as
an organic system, having its own structure and
functioning in ways analogous to the biological
system.
 Spencer's ideas of the evolution of human society
from the lowest ("barbarism") to highest form
("civilized") according to fixed laws were famous.
It was called "Social Darwinism", which is
analogous to the biological evolutionary model.
Social Darwinism is the attempt to apply by analogy
the evolutionary theories of plant and animal
development to the explanation of human society
and social phenomena (Team of Experts, 2000).
Emile Durkheim, French Sociologist, (1858-
1917)

Durkehiem was the most influential scholar in the

academic and theoretical development of sociology.
He laid down some of the fundamental principles,
methods, concepts and theories of sociology; he
defined sociology as the study of social facts.
According to him, there are social facts, which are
distinct from biological and psychological facts.
 By social facts, he meant the patterns of
behavior that characterize a social group in a
given society. They should be studied objectively.
The job of a sociologist, therefore, is to uncover
social facts and then to explain them using other
social facts. Some regard Durkheim as the first
sociologist to apply statistical methods to the
study of social phenomena (Macionis, 1997).
Max Weber, German Sociologist (1864-1920)
Weber was another prominent social scientist. According
to him, sociology is the scientific study of human social
action. Social action refers to any “action oriented to
influence or influenced by another person or persons. It is
not necessary for more than one person to be physically
present for action to be regarded as social action….. It is
concerned with the interpretive understanding of human
social action and the meaning people attach to their own
actions and behaviors and those of others.
 Weber was a renowned scholar who like Marx, wrote
in several academic fields. He agreed with much
Marxian theses but did not accept his idea that
economic forces are central to social change. Weber
argues that we cannot understand human behavior by
just looking at statistics. Every activity and behavior of
people needs to be interpreted. He argued that a
sociologist must aim at what are called subjective
meanings, the ways in which people interpret their own
behavior or the meanings people attach their own
behavior (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).
Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

Sociology as science employs perspectives or theories

to understand, explain, analyze and interpret social
phenomena. To interpret social facts, they must be
subjected to a theoretical framework. A theory may be
defined as a general statement about how some parts of
the world fit together and how they work (Macionis,
1997). Scupin and DeCorse (1995) define a theory as a
set of interconnected hypotheses that offer general
explanations for natural or social phenomena.
 It should also be noted that the terms “perspectives” and
“schools of thought” are often used interchangeably with the
term “theory”. Sociology as science employs perspectives or
theories to understand, explain, analyze and interpret social
phenomena. To interpret social facts, they must be subjected
to a theoretical framework. A theory may be defined as a
general statement about how some parts of the world fit
together and how they work (Macionis, 1997). Scupin and
DeCorse (1995) define a theory as a set of interconnected
hypotheses that offer general explanations for natural or
social phenomena. It should also be noted that the terms
“perspectives” and “schools of thought” are often used
interchangeably with the term “theory”.
 The Structural-Functionalist Theory

This is one of the dominant theories both in

anthropology and sociology. It is sometimes called
functionalism. The theory tries to explain how the
relationships among the parts of society are created and
how these parts are functional (meaning having beneficial
consequences to the individual and the society) and
dysfunctional (meaning having negative consequences). It
focuses on consensus, social order, structure and function
in society.
 The structural-functionalist theory sees society as a
complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability; it states that our social lives are guided
by social structure, which are relatively stable patterns of
social behavior (Macionis, 1997). Social structure is
understood in terms of social function, which are
consequences for the operations of society. All social structure
contributes to the operation of society. The major terms and
concepts developed by anthropologists and sociologists in this
theory include (or the theory focuses on): order, structure,
function (manifest or direct functions and latent or hidden,
indirect functions), and equilibrium.
 Those hold this view ask such questions as: what hold
society together? What keeps it steady? The Structural
functionalist theory pays considerable attention to the
persistence of shared ideas in society. The functional aspect
in the structural-functionalist theory stresses the role played
by each component part in the social system, whereas the
structural perspective suggests an image of society wherein
individuals are constrained by the social forces, social
backgrounds and by group memberships. Many of the great
early founding sociologists such as August Comte, Emile
Durkheim and Herbert Spencer and later American
sociologists like Talkot Parsons and Robert K Merton.
 Structural -functionalist theorists in modern sociology
are more likely to follow in the tradition of the writings of
particularly Emile Durkheim, who is regarded as the
pioneering proponent of this perspective (Hensiln and
Nelson, 1995). After dominating sociology and
anthropology for a long time, this theory was challenged by
its main critics, notably those who proposed the social –
conflict theory (see below). The theory was attacked for its
emphasis on stability and order while neglecting conflict
and changes which so vital in any society.
 The Social Conflict Theory
This theory is also called Marxism; to indicate that the
main impetus to the theory derives from the writings of
Karl Marx This theory sees society in a framework of
class conflicts and focuses on the struggle for scarce
resources by different groups in a given society. It asks
such questions as what pulls society apart. How does
society change? The theory holds that the most important
aspect of social order is the domination of some group
by others, that actual or potential conflicts are always
present in society.
 The writings of Karl Marx are generally in the spirit of conflict
theory, and Marxism influences most of conflict theorists in modern
sociology. The theory is useful in explaining how the dominant
groups use their power to exploit the less powerful groups in
society. Key concepts developed in this perspective include:
conflict, complementation, struggle, power, inequality, and
exploitation. Although this theory gained fame in recent decades, it
came under sharp criticism, for its overemphasis on inequality and
division, for neglecting the fact of how shared values and
interdependence generate unity among members of society; it is also
criticized for its explicit political goals. Another critique, which
equally applies also to structural functionalism, is that it sees society
in very broad terms, neglecting micro-level social realities
(Macionis 1997).
 Symbolic Interactionism

This theory was advanced by such American

sociologists as Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)
William I Thomas (1863-1947) and George Herbert
Mead (1863-1931) in early 20th century. This
perspective views symbols as the basis of social
life. Symbols are things to which we attach
meanings. The theory stresses the analysis of how
our behaviors depend on how we define others and
ourselves.
 It concentrates on process, rather than structure, and
keeps the individual actor at the center. According to
symbolic interactionism, the essence of social life and social
reality is the active human being trying to make sense of
social situations. In short, this theory calls attention to the
detailed, person-oriented processes that take place within the
larger units of social life. As indicated above, there are
contemporary sociological theories that have emerged in
recent decades that have heavily influenced sociological and
anthropological thinking.
 Feminism
This theory takes as its central theme the place and facts
of women’s underprivileged status and their exploitation in
a patriarchally dominated society. Feminist sociology
focuses on the particular disadvantages, including
oppression and exploitation faced by women in society.
This theory ranges from liberal feminism, which
recognizes inequalities but believes that reform can take
place without a fundamental restructuring of the social
system, to radical feminism, which advocates the
fundamental need for societal change.
 Social Exchange Theory

This theory focuses on “the costs and benefits

which people obtain in social interaction, including
money, goods, and status. It is based on the
principle that people always act to maximize
benefit. However, to receive benefits, there must
always be an exchange process with others”
 What does it
S. Name of the Key concepts
state?
No. theory Its weaknesses

Emphasis on stability
Sees society as a Consensus, social
and order
complex system order,
Structural while neglecting
1. whose parts work structure and function
Functionalism conflict and
together to promote in
changes which so vital
solidarity and stability society.
in any society
For its overemphasis
on inequality and
Sees society in a division, for
framework of class neglecting the fact of
Class conflict;
conflicts and focuses how shared values and
Social conflict alienation;
2. on the struggle for interdependence
theory competition;
scarce resources by generate unity among
domination
different groups in a members of society; it
given society is also criticized for its
explicit political
goals.
 Stresses the
analysis of how our
behaviors depend
on how we define Too much
Symbols;
others and emphasis on micro
Symbolic processes;
3. ourselves. It level analysis;
interactionism interaction;
concentrates on neglect of larger
meaning
process, rather than social processes
structure, and
keeps the individual
actor at the center.
 Feminist sociology
focuses on the
particular Women;
Some extreme
disadvantages, gender;
views such as
4 Feminism including exploitation;
radical feminism
oppression and male
seem unrealistic
exploitation faced supremacy
by women in
society

Focuses on the
costs and benefits
which people obtain
in social interaction,
Social
including money,
5. Exchange
goods, and status.
theory
It is based on the
principle that
people always act
to maximize benefit.
Subject Matter, Scope and Concerns of
Sociology
The scope of sociology is extremely wide ranging, from
the analysis of passing encounter between individuals on
the street up to the investigation of global social processes
The discipline covers an extremely broad range that
includes every aspect of human social conditions; all types
of human relationships and forms of social behavior
(Indrani, 1998). Sociologists are primarily interested in
human beings as they appear in social interaction and the
effects of this interaction on human behavior.
 Such interaction can range from the first physical
contacts of the new born baby with its mother to a
philosophical discussion at an international
conference, from a casual passing on the street to the
most intimate of human relationships. Sociologists are
interested to know what processes lead to these
interactions, what exactly occurs when they take place,
and what their short run and long run consequences
are.
 The major systems or units of interaction that interest
sociologists are social groups such as the family or peer
groups; social relationships, such as social roles and dyadic
relationships, and social organizations such as governments,
corporations and school systems to such territorial
organizations as communities and schools (Broom and
Selzinki, 1973).Sociologists are keen to understand, explain,
and analyze the effect of social world, social environment
and social interaction on our behavior, worldviews, lifestyle,
personality, attitudes, decisions, etc., as creative, rational,
intelligent members of society; and how we as such create the
social reality.
 Sociology and the Social Sciences
Is sociology a science? The term science refers to the
body of knowledge obtained by methods based on
systematic observation. Just like other scientific disciplines,
sociology involves the organized, systematic study of
phenomena (in this case, human behavior) in order to
enhance understanding. All scientists, whether studying
mushrooms or murderers, attempt to collect precise
information through methods of study that are as objective as
possible. They rely on careful recording of observations and
accumulation of data.
 Of course, there is a great difference between sociology and
physics, between psychology and astronomy. For this reason, the
sciences are commonly divided into natural and social sciences.
Natural science is the study of the physical features of nature and the
ways in which they interact and change. Astronomy, biology,
chemistry, geology, and physics are all natural sciences.

Social science is the study of the social features of humans and the
ways in which they interact and change. The social sciences include
sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political
science.
 These social science disciplines have a common focus on the
social behavior of people, yet each has a particular orientation.
Anthropologists usually study past cultures and preindustrial
societies that continue today, as well as the origins of humans.
Economists explore the ways in which people produce and exchange
goods and services, along with money and other resources.
Historians are concerned with the peoples and events of the past and
their significance for us today. Political scientists study international
relations, the workings of government, and the exercise of power
and authority. Psychologists investigate personality and individual
behavior. So what do sociologists focus on? They study the
influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior and the
ways in which peoples interact and shape society. Because humans
are social animals, sociologists examine our social relationships
scientifically.
The Significance of Learning Sociology
Generally, learning sociology provides us with what sociologists
call the sociological imagination. Sociological imagination is a
particular way of looking at the world around us through sociological
lenses. It is a way of looking at our experiences in light of what is
going on in the social world around us. This helps us to appreciate the
social and non-biological forces that affect, influence and shape our
lives as individuals, groups, and communities (Giddens, 1982).
Sociological imagination helps us look beyond individual psychology
to the many and varied facets of social and cultural forces, and "the
recurring patterns in peoples' attitudes and actions, and how these
patterns vary across time, cultures and social groups.
 Learning sociology helps us understand how
social forces influence our goals, attitudes, behavior,
and personality. We become more sensitive towards
the social issues. Furthermore, learning sociology
helps to cast aside our own biased assumptions,
stereotypes and ethno-centric thinking and practices
to become more critical, broad- minded and
respectful in our interpersonal and inter- group
relationships.
 By learning sociology, we can be more humane and people
– centered; we give high value to human dignity. In general,
sociology increases our self-knowledge. Learning sociology
can provide us with self enlightenment. When we learn
sociology, we gain more knowledge about the conditions of
our own lives, and about the way our society and social
system function. As such knowledge increases, we can be
more empowered to influence the direction of forces and
circumstances that affect our lives. We can also be more
responsive to the various policies set by governments; and
can suggest our own policy initiatives and alternatives
(Giddens, op cit).
 In addition to the aforementioned theoretical benefits,
sociology has certain practical benefits. There is what we
call applied sociology, the application of sociological
knowledge, principles, methods, concepts and theories to
provide the solutions to the contemporary social pathologies.
Sociology plays practical roles to tackle social pathologies.
Sociological knowledge is highly applicable in dealing with
today's most crucial social problems, and in facilitating
developmental activities in socioeconomic sectors.