Reading: Kalpakjian pp.

239-316

2.008

Metal Casting
 Outline

 Introduction
 Process Constraints
 Green Sand Casting
 Other Processes
 Some Facts

 First casting: 5000-3000 BC

 Bronze, iron age, light metal age?
 Versatility
• Many types of metals
• Rapid production
• Wide range of shapes and sizes
• Complex parts as an integral unit
Example – Sand Casting
Example – Die Casting
Example – Investment Casting
Casting Process Physics and
Constraints
 Phase Change
• Density
• Solubility
• Diffusion rates
 High melting temperature
• Chemical activity
• High latent heat
• Handling
 Analysis of Casting Processes

 Fluid mechanics for mold filling

 Heat transfer for solidification
 Thermodynamics, mass transfer and heat
transfer for nucleation and growth
 Materials behavior for structure-property
relationships
 Mold Filling
 Bernoulli’s equation
P v2
h+ + = const.
ρg 2 g
h
v ≅ 2 gh ≈1.5 m/s

 Reynold’s number
vDρ
Re = ≈5 ×10 4
μ
• Turbulence
• Injection Molding : Re ~ 10-4
Cooling for Sand Mold

AIR MOLD SOLID LIQUID

Tw
TEMPERATUR

METAL - MOLD
T
INTERFACE
E

MOLD - AIR
T INTERFACE
T0
DISTANCE
Conductivity / Diffusivity
 Conductivity (W/mK)
Cu ~ 400, Al ~ 200
Sand ~ 0.5, PMMA ~ 0.2

 Sand Casting
sand < metal
 Die Casting
tool metal ~ metal
 Injection Molding
tool metal > polymer
Solidification Time : Sand Casting
 Transient 1-D heat transfer
∂T ∂ 2T
=α s 2
∂t ∂x
Solution
T −TM −x
= erf
To −TM 2 α st

 Solidification time
2
⎛V ⎞
ts = C ⎜ ⎟
⎝A⎠
Chvorinov’s rule
Solidification Time : Die Casting
 Transient 1-D heat transfer
∂T
mC p =−Ah(T −To )
∂t
Solution
⎛Tinject + ΔTsp −Tmold
mC p ⎞
t= ln⎜ ⎟
Ah ⎜⎝ Teject −Tmold
⎟
⎠
 Solidification time
1
⎛V ⎞
ts = C ⎜ ⎟
⎝A⎠
 Comparison:
Sand Mold vs Metal Mold

Sand Mold Metal Mold

Sand casting Die casting
ts ~ (V/A)2 ts ~ (V/A)1
 Microstructure Formation

Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures

(a) Columnar dendritic (b) equiaxed dendritic (c) equiaxed nondendritic
Formation of Dendrites

Liquid
TL
Liq
Temperature

L+S uid T
us
Solid S
So S
+
lidu
L
s

Solid Liquid

Alloying element Mushy zone

Solid Liquid

Mold
wall
Dendrites
Constitutional Supercooling
SOLUTE ENRICHED

LIQUID COMPOSITION
CL* LAYER IN FRONT OF
LIQUID-SOLID
T* CL* INTERFACE
CS* LIQUID

C
SOLID

DISTANCE, x*
(b)
(a)
AL
TU
T LIQUID
S T AC
AL
TU

DS
TEMPERATURE

UI
TEMPERATURE
AC

T LIQ
T

CONSTITUTIONALLY
T* T* SUPERCOOLED
REGION

DISTANCE, x* DISTANCE, x*
(c) (d)
Green Sand Casting

Mechanical
drawing of part

Core halves
Core boxes pasted together Cope pattern plate Drag pattern plate

Cope after ramming with Drag ready Drag after

Cope ready sand and removing pattern, for sand removing
for sand sprue, and risers pattern

Casting as Casting ready

removed from for shippement
Drag with core Cope and drag assembled mold; heat treated
set in place ready for pouring
 Green Sand Mold

 Dimensional, Thermal and Chemical stability at high T

 Size and shape
 Wettability by molten metal
 Compatibility with binder system
 Availability and consistency
Pattern Design Considerations
(DFM)

 Shrinkage allowance
 Machining allowance
 Distortion allowance
 Parting line
 Draft angle
Typical Shrinkage Allowance
Metal or alloy Shrinkage allowances
mm / m
Aluminum alloy ………………………………...... 13
Aluminum bronze ……………………………...… 21
Yellow brass (thick sections) ………...…....…… 13
Yellow brass (thin sections) …..……...….…...… 13
Gray cast iron (a) …………………………….... 8 - 13
White cast iron ………………………………..….. 21
Tin bronze …………………………………..……. 16
Gun metal …………………………………...… 11 - 16
Lead …………………………………………..…... 26
Magnesium …………………………………..…… 21
Magnesium alloys (25%) ………………………... 16
Manganese bronze …………………………….… 21
Copper-nickel …………………………………….. 21
Nickel …………………………………………….... 21
Phosphor bronze ……………………………… 11 - 16
Carbon steel …………………………………… 16 - 21
Chromium steel ……………………………….….. 21
Manganese steel ……………………………….… 26
Tin …………………………………………….……. 21
Zinc …………………………………………….…... 26
 Typical Pattern Machining
Allowance
Allowances, mm
Pattern size, mm Bore Surface Cope side

For cast irons

Up to 152.……………………………….. 3.2 2.4 4.8
152 - 305………………………………… 3.2 3.2 6.4
305 - 510.………………………………... 4.8 4.0 6.4
510 - 915………………………………… 6.4 4.8 6.4
915 - 1524……………………………….. 7.9 4.8 7.9

For cast steels

Up to 152.……………………………….. 3.2 3.2 6.4
152 - 305………………………………… 6.4 4.8 6.4
305 - 510.………………………………... 6.4 6.4 7.9
510 - 915………………………………… 7.1 6.4 9.6
915 - 1524……………………………….. 7.9 6.4 12.7

For nonferrous alloys

Up to 76...……………………………….. 1.6 1.6 1.6
76 - 152..………………………………… 2.4 1.6 2.4
152 - 305………………………………… 2.4 1.6 3.2
305 - 510.………………………………... 3.2 2.4 3.2
510 - 915………………………………… 3.2 3.2 4.0
915 - 1524……………………………….. 4.0 3.2 4.8
 Gating System:
Sprue, Runner, and Gate

 Rapid mold filling

 Minimizing turbulence
 Avoiding erosion
 Removing inclusions
 Controlled flow and thermal conditions
 Minimizing scrap and secondary
operations
 Riser: Location and Size

 Casting shrinkage
 Directional solidification
 Scrap and secondary operation
Progressive Solidification in Riser

Progressive solidification :
Intermediate
rate
Slow Fast
rate rate

Riser

Temperature gradient
rising toward riser
Directional
solidification
Draft in Pattern

Patterns

Mold
 Investment Casting

Wax
pattern
Injection wax or
plastic patterns Ejecting pattern Pattern
assembly
(Tree)

Autoclaved
Heat Heat

Heat Heat

Slurry coating Stucco coating Completed Pattern meltout

mold
Investment Casting (cont.)

Casting Pattern

Finished product

Shakeout
Pouring
Advantages of Investment Casting

 Intricate geometry
 Close dimensional tolerance
 Superior surface finish
 High-melting point alloys
 Die Casting

Platen Toggle clamp

Gas/oil accumulator

Piston

Shot sleeve

Die
 Advantages of Die Casting

 High production rates

 Closer dimensional tolerances
 Superior surface finish
 Improved mechanical properties
Lost Foam Casting
 Lost Foam Casting
Receive raw polystyrene beads Invest assembly in flask
with backlip medium

Expand beads Vibrate to compact medium

Mold component pattern, Pour

including gating system
Shakeout castings

Join patters (if multipiece)

Clean castings assembly

Coat pattern assembly Inspect castings

Dry assembly Ship castings

Advantages of Lost Foam Casting

 No parting line
 No cores
 One-piece flask
 Freedom of design
 Minimum handling of sand
 Ease of cleaning and secondary
operation
Semi-solid Casting

Punch

Die
Induction
furnace
Advantages of Semi-solid Casting
Casting Process Comparison
 Cost - Casting
 Sand casting
 Tooling and equipment costs are low
 Direct labor costs are high
 Material utilization is low
 Finishing costs can be high
 Investment casting
 Tooling costs are moderate depending on the complexity
 Equipment costs are low
 Direct labor costs are high
 Material costs are low
 Die casting
 Tooling and equipment costs are high
 Direct labor costs are low to moderate
 Material utilization is high
 Quality - Casting
 Sand casting
 Tolerance (0.7~2 mm) and defects are affected by shrinkage
 Material property is inherently poor
 Generally have a rough grainy surface
 Investment casting
 Tolerance (0.08~0.2 mm)
 Mechanical property and microstructure depends on the
method
 Good to excellent surface detail possible due to fine slurry
 Die casting
 Tolerance (0.02~0.6 mm)
 Good mechanical property and microstructure due to high
pressure
 Excellent surface detail
 Rate - Casting
 Sand casting
 Development time is 2~10 weeks
 Production rate is depending on the cooling time : t~(V/A)2

 Investment casting
 Development time is 5~16 weeks depending on the complexity
 Production rate is depending on the cooling time : t~(V/A)2

 Die casting
 Development time is 12~20 weeks
 Production rate is depending on the cooling time : t~(V/A)1
 Flexibility - Casting

 Sand casting
 High degree of shape complexity (limited by pattern)

 Investment casting
 Ceramic and wax cores allow complex internal
configuration but costs increase significantly
 Die casting
 Low due to high die modification costs
New Developments in Casting

 Computer-aided design
 Rapid (free-form) pattern making