•
curves of functions of two variables
Level
The set of points in the plane where a function has a
constant value, (constant) is
called a level curve of .
A level curve is the intersection of the plane and the
surface.
Examples:
Isobars Curves of constant pressure
Level curves of the pressure function in
Isotherms Curves of constant temperature
Level curves of the temperature function in
•Level
surfaces of functions of three variables
The set of points in space where a function has a constant
value, (constant) is called a level surface of .
Examples:
Isothermal surfaces Surfaces on which the
temperature is constant
Level surfaces of the temperature function in
•
Determine the isotherms of the temperature fields given
by the following functions.
Problem 1:
Solution:
The isotherms (level curves of T) are given by
T(constant)
ie.,
or by taking (constant)
Straight lines passing through origin
Isotherms are straight lines passing through origin.
•Problem
2:
Solution:
The isotherms (level curves of T) are given by
T(constant)
ie.,
circles with (0, )
as the centresand as the radii.
•
Problem 3:
Solution:
The isotherms (level curves of T) are given by
T(constant)
rectangular hyperbolas
Problem 4:
Solution:
The isotherms (level curves of T) are given by
T(constant)
by taking
circles with (0, ) as the centresand as the radii.
•Homework:
Answer:
1. circles with (, 0) as the centresand as
the radii.
2. rectangular hyperbolas
•What
kind of surfaces are the level surfaces of
the following scalar fields?
Problem 1:
Solution:
The level surface of is given by
f(constant)
Elliptic cylinder in
•
Problem 2:
Solution:
The level surface of is given by
f(constant)
Planes
Problem 3:
Solution:
The level surface of is given by
f (constant)
Circular paraboloids
•
Problem 4:
Solution:
The level surface of is given by
f (constant)
Ellipsoids
•
Problem 5:
Solution:
The level surface of is given by
f (constant)
Circular cones
Problem 6:
Solution:
The level surface of is given by
f (constant)
Parabolic cylinder
Directional Derivative
Consider f(x, y, z)
The rate of change of in the directions of the coordinate axes
are given by the partial derivatives.
ie., Rate of change of along the axis is give by
Rate of change of along the axis is give by
Rate of change of along the axis is give by
The idea of extending this to arbitrary directions leads to the
concept of the directional derivative.
The rate of change of in the direction of any arbitrary vector is
given by the directional derivative of in the direction of and is
denoted by
• (projection
of in the direction of )
Proof:
Let define a scalar field in the region .
Let be a fixed point in the region.
Take a point in the direction of a unit vector where denotes
the distance between and .
Consider a ray emerging out from in the direction of the
unit vector
•
Parametric representation of C:
Then
= the derivative of the function
with respect to the arc length of .
Assume that f has continuous partial derivatives and apply chain
rule.
Then
= projection of the gradient of in the direction of the unit vector
ie., , is the unit vector.
• directional derivative of any function in the direction
of a vector is the projection of the gradient of that
function in that direction.
If the direction is given by a vector of any length then
Remark:
•Consider
, is the angle
between and
(since cos is maximum when
and =1)
As has the direction of
is maximum when has the direction of .
The direction of maximum rate of increase of is
given by the direction of
Remark:
•Consider
, is the angle
between and
(since cos is minimum when
and= -1)
As has the direction of
is minimum when has the direction of .
The direction of minimum rate of decrease of is
given by the direction of-
Problems
•Find
the directional derivative of at in the
direction of .
Problem 1:
Solution:
At ,
At ,
•Problem
2:
, ,
Solution:
At ,
At ,
The minus sign indicates that decreases at in the
direction of
•Problem
3:
Solution:
At ,
At ,
•Problem
4:
Solution:
At ,
At,
•Problem
5:
Solution:
At ,
At , =
Problems for practice
•1.,
2. ,
3. , ,
Answer:
Gradient as surface normal vector
•Consider
a surface in space
Suppose C is a curve lying on this surface.
Let be a general point on .
The parametric representation of
Since is lying on the surface, the coordinates of satisfy the
equation, .
1
Now the tangent vector at to is
•Since
is lying on , this vector is tangent to also.
Consider various curves through and find the tangent
vectors at to all those curves. All those tangent vectors of
the curves on will generally form a plane. This plane is
called the tangent plane of at .
The straight line passing throughwhich is perpendicular to
the tangent plane is called the surface normal of at . A
vector parallel to it is called a surface normal vector of at .
•Now
consider 1
Differentiating eqn. 1 with respect to we get,
ie.,
Ie.,
and all the vectors in the tangent plane are
orthogonal.
and tangent vector are orthogonal.
ie., is perpendicular to the tangent vector.
has the direction of the normal vector.
• Normal vector to the surface = is given by
Unit normal vector to the surface = =
is given by
• gradients, find unit normal vectors for the given curves and
Using
surfaces at the given points.
Problem 1:
Solution:ie., constant
w
Then the normal vector to the curve is given by
The unit normal vector to the curve is given by
•Problem
2:
Solution:ie., constant
where
Then the normal vector to the curve is given by
The unit normal vector to the curve is given by
•
Problem 3:
Solution:
ie., constant
where
Then the normal vector to the curve is given by
The unit normal vector to the curve is given by
Problems for practice
•
1.,
2. ,
3.
Answer:
1.
2.
3.
