Nuclear Reaction

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A nuclear reaction is said to
occur whenever the incident
nucleus, particle, or photon
causes a change to occur in the
target nucleus.
 Nuclear Reactions
(Induced Nuclear Transmutation)
• Structure of nuclei can be changed by
bombarding them with energetic particles
– The changes are called nuclear reactions
• As with nuclear decays, the atomic
numbers and mass numbers must balance
on both sides of the equation
Example:

• Alpha particle colliding with nitrogen:

4 14 1
2 He  7 N  X  1 H

• Balancing the equation allows for the

identification of X
17 17
X  8 X  8 O
• So the reaction is
4 14 17
2 He  7 N O  11H
8
Example : An Induced Nuclear Transmutation

An alpha particle strikes an aluminum nucleus. As a result,

and unknown nucleus and a neutron are produced.

4 27 A 1
2 He  13Al  ZX  0n

30
15 P
An induced nuclear
reaction in which
uranium is
transmuted into
plutonium.
Conservation Rules for Nuclear
Reactions
• The following must be conserved in any
nuclear reaction
– Energy
– Momentum
– Total charge
– Total number of nucleons
• A target nucleus, X, is bombarded by a
particle a, resulting in a daughter nucleus
Y and an outgoing particle b
a+XY+b
• The reaction energy Q is defined as the
total change in mass-energy resulting from
the reaction
Q = (Ma + MX – MY – Mb)c2
• If a and b are identical, so that X and Y are
also necessarily identical, the reaction is
called a scattering event
– If the kinetic energy before the event is the
same as after, it is classified as elastic
scattering
– If the kinetic energies before and after are not
the same, it is an inelastic scattering
 Q Values
• Energy must also be conserved in nuclear reactions
• The energy required to balance a nuclear reaction is
called the Q value of the reaction
– An exothermic reaction
• There is a mass “loss” in the reaction
• There is a release of energy
• Q is positive
– An endothermic reaction
• There is a “gain” of mass in the reaction
• Energy is needed, in the form of kinetic energy of the incoming
particles
• Q is negative
 Threshold Energy
• To conserve both momentum and energy,
incoming particles must have a minimum
amount of kinetic energy, called the threshold
energy
 m
KEmin  1   Q
 M
– m is the mass of the incoming particle
– M is the mass of the target particle
• If the energy is less than this amount, the
reaction cannot occur
Table 14-1, p.505
 PROBLEMS 14.1 NO.1
(a)
18
O  17.999 160 18
F  18.000 938
1
H  1.007 825 mn  1.008 664 9

Q   MO  MH  MF  mn  c 2   0.002 617 9 u   931.494 3 MeV u   2.438 6 MeV

(b)
 Ma   1.007 825 
Kth  Q 1     2.438 6 MeV   1    2.575 1 MeV
 M   17.999 160 
 PROBLEMS 14.1 NO.7
(a) Q   m  14
N   m  4 He   m  17
O   m  1 H    931.5 MeV u 

Q   14.003 074 u  4.002 603 u  16.999 132 u  1.007 825 u   931.5 MeV u 
Q  1.19 MeV
Q  m  4 He   m  14
N    4.002 603 
Kth      1.19 MeV   1    1.53 MeV
m 14
N  14.003 074 

(b)
Q   m  7 Li   m  1 H   2 m  1 He    931.5 MeV u 

Q    7.016 004 u  1.007 825 u    2   4.002 603 u    931.5 MeV u 

Q  17.35 MeV
 Processes of Nuclear Energy
• Fission
– A nucleus of large mass number splits into
two smaller nuclei
• Fusion
– Two light nuclei fuse to form a heavier
nucleus
• Large amounts of energy are released in
either case
 Example fission reaction
1 235 236 141 92
0 n  92 U  92 U  56 Ba  36 Kr  
3 1
0n
Example fusion reaction
Two nuclei of very low mass can combine to generate energy. This
process is called nuclear fusion.
 FISSION

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FUSION

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 Interactions Involving Neutrons
• Because of their charge neutrality,
neutrons are not subject to Coulomb
forces
• As a result, they do not interact electrically
with electrons or the nucleus
• Neutrons can easily penetrate deep into
an atom and collide with the nucleus
 Fast Neutrons
• A fast neutron has energy greater than 1 MeV
• During its many collisions when traveling
through matter, the neutron gives up some of its
kinetic energy to a nucleus
• For some materials and fast neutrons, elastic
collisions dominate
– These materials are called moderators since they
moderate the originally energetic neutrons very
efficiently
 Thermal Neutrons
• Most neutrons bombarding a moderator
will be come thermal neutrons
– They are in thermal equilibrium with the
moderator material
– Their average kinetic energy at room
temperature is about 0.04 eV
– This corresponds to a neutron root-mean-
square speed of about 2 800 m/s
• Thermal neutrons have a distribution of speeds
 Neutron Capture
• Once the energy of a neutron is sufficiently low,
there is a high probability that it will be captured
by a nucleus
• The neutron capture equation can be written as
1
0 n X
A
Z
A 1
Z X*  A 1
Z X
– The excited state lasts for a very short time
– The product nucleus is generally radioactive and
decays by beta emission
 Nuclear Fission
• A heavy nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei
• Fission is initiated when a heavy
nucleus captures a thermal neutron
• The total mass of the products is less
than the original mass of the heavy
nucleus
– This difference in mass is called the
mass defect
 Short History of Fission
• First observed in 1939 by Otto Hahn
and Fritz Strassman following basic
studies by Fermi
• Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch soon
explained what had happened
 Fission Equation: 235
U
• Fission of 235U by a thermal neutron
1
0n 235
92 U 236
92 U*  X  Y  neutrons

– 236U* is an intermediate, excited state that

exists for about 10-12 s before splitting
– X and Y are called fission fragments
• Many combinations of X and Y satisfy the
requirements of conservation of energy and charge
 Others:
1
0 n  235
92 U  236
92 U 140
54 Xe  94
38 Sr  2 
1
0 n

1
0 n  235
92 U  236
92 U 132
50 Sn 101
42 Mo  3 
1
0 n
 Fission Event Described by the
Liquid-Drop Model
• A slow neutron approaches the 235U nucleus
• The 235U nucleus captures a thermal neutron
• This capture results in the formation of 236U*, and
the excess energy of this nucleus causes it to
deform and oscillate
• The 236U* nucleus becomes highly elongated,
and the force of repulsion between the protons
tends to increase the distortion
• The nucleus splits into two fragments, emitting
several neutrons in the process
Fission Described by the Liquid-
Drop Model – Diagram

• (a) Approach (b) Absorption

• (c) Oscillation (d) Fission
 Energy in a Fission Process
• Binding energy for heavy nuclei is about 7.2
MeV per nucleon
• Binding energy for intermediate nuclei is about
8.2 MeV per nucleon
• Therefore, the fission fragments have less mass
than the nucleons in the original nuclei
• This decrease in mass per nucleon appears as
released energy in the fission event
 Energy, cont.

• An estimate of the energy released

– Releases about 1 MeV per nucleon
• 8.2 MeV – 7.2 MeV
– Assume a total of 235 nucleons
– Total energy released is about 235 MeV
– This is the disintegration energy, Q
• This is very large compared to the
amount of energy released in chemical
processes
 Chain Reaction
• Neutrons are emitted when 235U undergoes
fission
– An average of 2.5 neutrons
• These neutrons are then available to trigger
fission in other nuclei
• This process is called a chain reaction
– If uncontrolled, a violent explosion can occur
– When controlled, the energy can be put to
constructive use
Chain Reaction – Diagram
NUCLEAR REACTOR
NUCLEAR REACTOR
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We get ENERGY from three of the
fundamental forces:
Gravity, electromagnetic, nuclear
strong
The stronger the force, the more
energy you get for the amount of fuel
used.
Example: Requirements for a 1,000
MW power plant
[1] A hydroelectric plant requires
60,000 tons of water per second.
[2] A coal-burning plant needs
150 truckloads per day
[3] A nuclear plant requires about
3 truckload per year!
Destructive power:

[1] Small towns have been leveled by

floods and landslides.
[2] The same size town could be leveled
by 1,000 tons of chemical explosives.
[3] Hiroshima (quarter of a million
people) was destroyed by releasing the
energy in 40 kg of Uranium
We know the least about
the strong nuclear force.
 Enrico Fermi
• 1901 – 1954
• Nobel Prize in 1938 for
producing transuranic
elements by neutron
irradiation
• Other contributions
include theory of beta
decay, free-electron
theory of metal,
development of world’s
first fission reactor (1942)
 Nuclear Reactor
• A nuclear reactor is a system designed to
maintain a self-sustained chain reaction
• The reproduction constant K is defined as the
average number of neutrons from each fission
event that will cause another fission event
– The maximum value of K from uranium fission is 2.5
• In practice, K is less than this
– A self-sustained reaction has K = 1
 K Values
• When K = 1, the reactor is said to be critical
– The chain reaction is self-sustaining
• When K < 1, the reactor is said to be subcritical
– The reaction dies out
• When K > 1, the reactor is said to be
supercritical
– A run-away chain reaction occurs
 Reactor Fuel
• Most reactors today use uranium as fuel
– Naturally occurring uranium is 99.3% 238U and
0.7% 235U
• 238U almost never fissions
• It tends to absorb neutrons producing neptunium
and plutonium
– Fuels are generally enriched to at least a few
percent 235U

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7G0
 Moderator

• The moderator slows the neutrons

– The slower neutrons are more likely to react with
235U than 238U

• The probability of neutron capture by 238U is high when the

neutrons have high kinetic energies
• Conversely, the probability of capture is low when the
neutrons have low kinetic energies
– The slowing of the neutrons by the moderator
makes them available for reactions with 235U while
decreasing their chances of being captured by 238U
Pressurized Water Reactor –
Diagram
•Heat is removed from the nuclear reactor by a circulating coolant
•hot coolant is used to boil water, making steam
•steam drives a turbo generator to make electricity
 Pressurized Water Reactor –
Notes
• This type of reactor is the most common in use
in electric power plants in the US
• Fission events in the uranium in the fuel rods
raise the temperature of the water contained in
the primary loop
– The primary system is a closed system
• This water is maintained at a high pressure to
keep it from boiling
• This water is also used as the moderator to slow
down the neutrons
 Pressurized Water Reactor –
Notes, cont.
• The hot water is pumped through a heat
exchanger
• The heat is transferred by conduction to
the water contained in a secondary system
• This water is converted into steam
• The steam is used to drive a turbine-
generator to create electric power
 Pressurized Water Reactor –
Notes, final
• The water in the secondary system is isolated
from the water in the primary system
– This prevents contamination of the secondary water
and steam by the radioactive nuclei in the core
• A fraction of the neutrons produced in fission
leak out before inducing other fission events
– An optimal surface area-to-volume ratio of the fuel
elements is a critical design feature
 Basic Reactor Design
• Fuel elements consist of
enriched uranium
• The moderator material
helps to slow down the
neutrons
• The control rods absorb
neutrons
• All of these are
surrounded by a radiation
shield
 Control Rods
• To control the power level, control rods are
inserted into the reactor core
• These rods are made of materials that are very
efficient in absorbing neutrons
– Cadmium is an example
• By adjusting the number and position of the
control rods in the reactor core, the K value can
be varied and any power level can be achieved
– The power level must be within the design of the
reactor
 Reactor Safety – Containment
• Radiation exposure, and its potential health risks,
are controlled by three levels of containment:
• Reactor vessel
– Contains the fuel and radioactive fission products
• Reactor building
– Acts as a second containment structure should the reactor
vessel rupture
– Prevents radioactive material from contaminating the
environment
• Location
– Reactor facilities are in remote locations
 Reactor Safety – Radioactive
Materials
• Disposal of waste material
– Waste material contains long-lived, highly radioactive isotopes
– Must be stored over long periods in ways that protect the
environment
– Present solution is sealing the waste in waterproof containers
and burying them in deep geological repositories
• Transportation of fuel and wastes
– Accidents during transportation could expose the public to
harmful levels of radiation
– Department of Energy requires crash tests and manufacturers
must demonstrate that their containers will not rupture during
high speed collisions
A slowly moving neutron causes the uranium nucleus to fission
into barium, krypton, and three neutrons.
A chain reaction
In a controlled chain reaction,
only one neutron, on average,
causes another neutron to fission.
32.4 Nuclear Reactors

A nuclear reactor consists of fuel elements, control rods, and

a moderator.
The moderator slows neutrons and the control rods absorb neutrons.