Chapter Two

Water Treatment
 Objective of Water Treatment

 The main objective of the treatment process is:

◦ to remove the impurities of raw water and bring the
quality of water to the required standard
 The objective may be summarized as follow:
i. Preventing disease transmission

ii. Making the water acceptable

iii. Protecting the distribution system

Methods of Water Treatment
 The common methods/processes of water treatment
(water purification) are:
i. Screening and grit removal
ii. Aeration
iii. Plain sedimentation
iv. Coagulation and flocculation
v. Secondary sedimentation and sludge management
vi. Filtration
vii. Softening
viii.Disinfections
Surface Water Treatment
Typical treatment plant for surface water:
1) Screening and grit removal

2) Aeration

3) Primary sedimentation
4) Coagulation and flocculation

5) Secondary sedimentation and sludge processing

6) Filtration

7) Disinfection
Groundwater Treatment
Typical treatment plant for groundwater :
1) Aeration (gas transfer method)

2) Softening

3) Re-carbonation

4) De-fluoridation

5) Disinfection
Water Treatment – Process
Water Intake Screening

Aeration

Coagulation Pre-Sedimentation

Flocculation Sedimentation pH Adjustment

Filtration
Distribution Disinfection
 Chapter Three
Preliminary Water Treatment Process
 Screening
 Aeration
Screening
 passing the water through closely spaced bars,
gratings or perforated plates.
◦ to remove large solids and floating matter as leaves, dead
animals, fish etc (larger than the screen openings).
 does not change the chemical or bacteriological
quality of the water.
Screening
 Purposes:

◦ Removal of floating and suspended matter which

clogs pipes, damages pumps, etc.
◦ Clarification by removal of suspended matter to
lighten the load on subsequent treatment processes.
 Types of screen
i. Coarse/Bar screens - 7.5 - 10cm opening
ii. Fine/Mesh screens - with opening of 0.05 – 2cm
 Mostly bars are kept inclined so that they can be
cleaned easily with a rake.
Screening
 Headloss through coarse screen
𝟐 𝟐
  𝟏 𝑽 𝟐− 𝑽 𝟏
𝒉𝒍 =
𝒄 ( 𝟐𝒈 )
Where:
c = empirical discharge coefficient to account for turbulence
and eddy motion
= 0.7 for clean bar
= 0.6 for clogged bar screen V1
V2 = velocity of flow through openings
V2
V1 = approaching velocity in the
upstream channel (Va)
Figure: Screen
Screening
Headloss through fine screen
𝟐
  𝟏 𝑸
𝒉𝒍 =
𝒄(𝟐 𝒈) 𝑨( )
Where
c = empirical discharge coefficient to account for turbulence
and eddy motion (c = 0.6)
Q = discharge (m3/s)
A = effective opening area of the screen
Screening
Example 1
Determine the building up of headloss through a bar
screen when 50% of the flow area is blocked off by the
accumulation of coarse solids. Assume the following
conditions are applied.
Approach velocity, V1 = 0.6m/s
Velocity through a clean bar screen, V2 = 0.9m/s
Open area for flow through clean bar screen = 0.19m2

 
Ans:
Aeration
 is the process of bringing water in intimate contact with
air, while doing so water absorbs oxygen from the air.
Objective:
i. Removes taste and odour caused by gases due to
organic decomposition like H2S, CH4, NH3
ii. Increases the dissolved oxygen (DO) content of the
water
iii. Decreases the CO2 content of water (> 10mg/l) and
thereby reduces its corrosiveness and raises its pH
value
Aeration
iv. Converts iron and manganese from their soluble
states to their insoluble states, so that these
precipitated and removed
v. Due to agitation of water during aeration, bacteria
may be killed to some extent
vi. Effective in removing volatile substances (benzene)
from water
 Types of aerators
i. Gravity aerator
ii. Spray aerator
iii. Air diffuser
iv. Mechanical aerator
i. Gravity aerators
a) Cascade towers
◦ consists of a series of steps that the water flows over.

Inlet
chamber
Collection
  Chamber

◦ The splashing of water creates turbulence and water droplets

 Types of aerators
i. Gravity aerators
b) Inclined apron possibly shaded with plates
Inlet
chamber plates

Collection
  Chamber

c) Tray aerator
◦ water falls through a series of trays perforated with
small holes, 5 - 12mm diameter and 25 - 75mm spacing
center to center.
Types of aerators
c) Tray aerator
 built in stacks of 4 - 6 trays giving a total height of 1.2 -
3m.
 may be filled with layers of activated charcoal or gravel

of 50mm size to insure purification.

 Types of aerators
ii. Spray aerators
◦ spray droplets of water into the air from stationary or
moving orifices or nozzles.
◦ water is pumped through pressure nozzles to spray in
the open air as in fountain to a height of about 2.5m.
 Types of aerators
iii. Air diffuser
◦ In diffused aeration systems, water is contained in
basins.
◦ Compressed air is forced into this system through the
diffusers.
◦ The air bubbles up through the water, mixing water and
air and introducing oxygen into the water.
Types of aerators
iv. Mechanical Aerator
◦ These aerators work by vigorously agitating source
water with mechanical mixers.
◦ Mechanical aeration systems are able to remove most
volatile contaminants
 Chapter Four

Plain Sedimentation
Sedimentation
 is a solid-liquid separation utilizing gravitational
settling to remove suspended solids.
1. Plain sedimentation
◦ when impurities are separated from water by the
action of gravity alone
◦ no chemicals are added to enhance the
sedimentation process
2. Coagulant aided sedimentation
◦ when the particles are too small to be removed by
gravity and aided with coagulants to increase size
and agglomeration.
Sedimentation
 Particle-fluid separation processes are difficult to
describe by theoretical analysis, mainly because the
particles involved are not regular in shape, density, or
size.
 The various regimes in settling of particles are
commonly referred to as:
Type – I: Discrete particle settling
Type – II: Flocculant settling
Type – III: Hindered (zone) settling
Type – IV: Compression settling
Type – I – Discrete particle settling
 Settling of discrete particles in low concentration
 Negligible flocculation and inter-particle effects
 Particles settle at constant settling velocity
 They settle as individual particles and do not flocculate
during settling
 Examples:
◦ Settling of sand, grit

 Applications:
◦ plain sedimentation for sand removal prior to coagulation
Type – II – Flocculent settling
 Settling of flocculent particles in a dilute suspension.
 As coalescence occurs, particle masses increase and
particles settle more rapidly.
 Particles flocculate during sedimentation.

 These types of particles occur in alum or iron

coagulation.
Type – III – Hindered (zone) settling
◦ Settling in which particle concentration causes inter-particle
effects.
◦ Flocculation and rate of settling is a function of particle
concentration.
◦ Mass of particles settle as a zone
◦ Zones of different particle concentrations (different layers)
may develop as a result of particles with different settling
velocities
◦ State of compression is reached at the bottom.
Type – IV – Compression settling
◦ Settling of particles that are of high concentration of
solids (sludge's)

◦ The particles touch each other and settling can occur

only by compression of the compacting mass.

◦ Occurs at lower depths of the sedimentation tanks

Settling of particles

Figure 6: Settling regimes

depend upon closeness of
particles to each other

Discrete Flocculent Hindered Compression

Principle of plain sedimentation -
Discrete particles
 When particles settle discretely, the particle settling
velocity can be calculated and the basins can be
designed to remove a specific particle size. Stoke’s
LAW

 Particle falling in a fluid accelerates until the frictional

resistance, or drag on the particle is equal to the
gravitational force of the particle. Isaac NEWTON

 Settling velocity remains constant Terminal velocity

Principle of plain sedimentation -
Discrete particles
 Terminal settling velocity depends on water and particle
properties.
 Characteristics of the particles
◦ Size and shape
◦ Specific gravity
 Properties of the water
◦ Specific gravity
◦ Viscosity
 To calculate the settling velocity
◦ Particle shape is assumed to be spherical
◦ Particles that are not spherical … can be expressed in terms of a sphere of
an equal volume.
Principle of plain sedimentation -
Discrete particles
 The general equation for terminal settling of a single
particle is derived by equating the forces upon a
particle (Newton’s Law)
Forces acting on a free falling
particle in a fluid are:
FD: Drag Force
FB: Buoyancy Force
FG: Gravitational Force

FD = FG - FB
 Principle of plain sedimentation -
Discrete particles
i.
Drag  Force on a particle traveling in a resistant fluid:

CD : Drag coefficient
v : settling velocity
 : density of fluid
A : projected area of particle in the direction of flow
ii. Gravitational Force:

p : density of particle
g : gravitational acceleration
: volume of particle
Discrete particles
Buoyancy
 
iii. Force:

 : density of fluid
g : gravitational acceleration
: volume of particle
 From Newton’s Law

 
2 ∀ 𝑔 (𝜌 𝑝 − 𝜌)
𝑣𝑡 =
√ 𝐶𝐷 𝜌 𝐴
Terminal settling velocity of a particle of any shape
Discrete particles

Terminal settling velocity of a particle of a solid
 
spherical particle (d: diameter of a sphere):

 
4 𝑔𝑑 (𝜌 𝑝 − 𝜌)


𝑣𝑡 =
√ 3𝐶𝐷 𝜌
Stoke’s equation

Drag coefficient depends on the nature of the flow

around the particle.
 Nature of the flow can be described by the Reynolds
number (Re)
  𝜌 𝑣𝑡 𝑑   1
𝑅𝑒 = 𝐶 𝐷 =𝑘
𝜇 𝑅𝑒
 Discrete particles
i.For  Re less than 2, Laminar flow
Cd is related to Re by the linear expression as follows:

For laminar flow conditions

  𝑔( 𝜌 𝑝 − 𝜌) 𝑑 2
𝑣𝑡 =
18 𝜇
ii. 2 < Re < 500 - 1000, Transition zone

The value of vt is solved by iteration.

◦ first, assume the flow is laminar and calculate C d,
◦ compute vt and Re and,
◦ with computed Re, compute Cd until the values of vt
converges.
 Discrete particles

iii.  500 - 1000 < Re < 200,000, Turbulent flow zone

 Terminal velocity becomes

 
𝑔(𝜌 𝑝 − 𝜌)𝑑
𝑣 𝑡 =1.74
√ 𝜌
 Drag Coefficient on a Sphere

d g p   
 
4 𝑔𝑑 (𝜌 𝑝 − 𝜌)
Vt 
2

1000
18
𝑣𝑡 =
Stokes Law
√
3𝐶𝐷 𝜌
Drag Coefficient

100

10

0.1

24 Vt d 
Cd  Re 
Re Reynolds Number
turbulent 
laminar turbulent boundary
Figure 7: Variation of drag coefficient Cd with Reynolds number Re
for single particle sedimentation
Discrete particles
 Example 1

Find the terminal settling velocity of a spherical particle

with diameter of 0.5mm and a specific gravity (sg) of
2.65 settling through water at 20°c ( = 1.002*10-3 Ns/m2,
w = 1000kg/m3).

Ans: vt = 0.091m/sec
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
 Particle settling is dependent on the nature of the particle
and geometry of the sedimentation process.
 In practice, settling of the particles is governed by the
resultant of horizontal velocity of water and the vertical
downward velocity of the particle.
 Particles move horizontally with the fluid (all particles
have the same horizontal velocity)
 Particles move vertically with terminal settling
velocity (different for particles with different size, shape
and density)
 The path of the settling particle is as shown in Figure
below.
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks

Particle 2
Particle 1

Particle 3

Figure: Horizontal and vertical velocity of settling of particles

Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
 The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are:
i. Velocity of flow

ii. Capacity of tank

iii. Inlet and outlet arrangements

iv. Settling and sludge zones

v. Shapes of tanks

vi. Miscellaneous considerations

Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
1. Velocity of flow:
◦ should be sufficient enough to cause the hydraulic settling
of suspended impurities

◦ should remain uniform throughout the tank

◦ is generally not allowed to exceed 0.15 to 0.3m/min

2. Capacity of tank:
◦ Capacity of tank is calculated by
i. Detention period
ii. Overflow rate
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
i. Detention period
◦ The theoretical time taken by a particle of water to
pass between entry and exit of a settling tank
◦ The capacity of tank is calculated by:
V=C=Q*T where C - Capacity of tank
Q - Discharge or rate of flow
T - Detention period in hours
◦ The detention period depends on the quality of
suspended impurities present in water.
◦ For plain sedimentation tanks, the detention period
is found to vary from 3 to 4 hours.
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks

ii.  Overflow Rate
 It is assumed that the settlement of a particle at the
bottom of the tank:
◦ does not depend on the depth of tank
◦ depends upon the surface area of the tank
 Settling time:
=
 Detention time:
=
 horizontal velocity of water particle
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
ii. Overflow Rate
 To get the desired settling with most efficient tank size, td = ts
, which occurs when Vo = Vs = Vt.
HV H Q Q Q
Vo    
L L HW LW Ap

Where, L → Length of tank

W → Width of tank
Ap → Plan area of tank
Q → Discharge or rate of flow
Vs → Velocity of descend of a particle to the bottom of tank
Vo → overflow rate / surface loading rate /critical velocity
V → horizontal velocity of particle
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
3. Inlet and Outlet Arrangements
Inlet zone
 Purposes:

◦ to distribute the water

◦ to control the water's velocity as it enters the basin 
 The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be
evenly distributed across the width of the basin to
prevent short-circuiting (caused by wind effects, …) 
◦ Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance in which water
bypasses the normal flow path through the basin and reaches
the outlet in less than the normal detention time. 
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks

Figure 8: Horizontal and vertical velocity of settling of particles

Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
3.Inlet and Outlet Arrangements
Outlet Zone

 The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the

sedimentation basin
◦ designed to prevent short-circuiting of water in the basin. 
◦ to ensure that only well-settled water leaves the basin and
enters the filter.
◦ used to control the water level in the basin.
 Outlet arrangement consists of
(i) weir, notches or orifices
(ii) effluent trough or launder
(iii) outlet pipe
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
Outlet Zone
◦ Weir loading rates are limited to prevent high
approach velocities near the outlet.
◦ Weirs frequently consist of V-notches approximately
50mm in depth, placed 150 – 300mm on centers, with
a baffle in front of the weir:
 to prevent floating material from escaping the sedimentation
basin and clogging the filters.
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
4. Settling and Sludge Zones
Settling Zone
◦ Zone where particle settling occurs
◦ this zone will make up the largest volume of the
sedimentation basin. 
◦ for optimal performance, the settling zone requires a slow,
even flow of water. (insignificant turbulence, laminar flow)
◦ The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open
water. 
◦ But in some cases, tube settlers and lamella plates are
included in the settling zone.
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
Tube settlers and lamella plates: (55° to 60° )
◦ increase the settling efficiency and speed in sedimentation
basins.  
◦ are very useful in plants where site area is limited, in
packaged plants, or to increase the capacity of shallow
basins.
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
4. Settling and Sludge Zones
Sludge Zone

◦ Found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where

the sludge collects temporarily. 
◦ Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent re-
suspension of sludge.
◦ A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be
easily removed from the tank. 
◦ The tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further
facilitate sludge removal.
◦ Sludge removal:
 using automated equipment 
 manually
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
5. Shapes of Tanks
i. Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
ii. Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow
 The detention time for a circular tank
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
 Parameters for satisfactory performance of sedimentation
tank.

1. Detention period ….. 3 to 4 hours for plain settling

2 to 2.5 hours for floc settling

1 to 1.5 hours for vertical flow type

2. Overflow rate ……… 15 - 30 m3/m2/day for plain settling

30 - 40m3/m2/day for horizontal flow

40 - 50m3/m2/day for vertical flow

3. Velocity of flow…….. 0.5 to 1.0 cm/sec

4. Weir loading………... 300m3/m/day

Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
 Parameters for satisfactory performance of
sedimentation tank.

5. L:W …………………. 3:1 to 5:1

Width of tank…….. (10 to 12m) to 30 to 50m

6. Depth of tank…… 2.5 to 5m (with a preferred value of 3m)

7. Diameter of circular tank…. up to 60m

8. Turbidity of water after sedimentation ….. 15 to 20 NTU.

9. Inlet and Outlet zones………. 0.75 to 1.0m

10. Free board…………………… 0.5m

11. Sludge Zone…………………. 0.5m

Overview of design calculations
 Determine the surface area, dimensions, and volume of
the sedimentation tank as well as the weir length.
 The calculations are as follows:
1. Divide flow into at least two tanks.
2. Calculate the required surface area.
3. Calculate the required volume.
4. Calculate the tank depth.
5. Calculate the tank width and length.
6. Check flow velocity.
7. If velocity is too high, repeat calculations with more tanks.
8. Calculate the weir length.
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
Example 2:
A water treatment plant has four clarifiers treating 0.175 m3/s of
water. Each clarifier is 4.9m wide, 24.4m long and 4.6m deep.
Determine: (a) the detention time, (b) overflow rate, (c) horizontal
velocity, and (d) weir loading rate assuming the weir length is 2.5
times the basin width.

Example 3:
Find the settling velocity (vs) for sand particles with a diameter of
0.08mm. ρp= 2650 kg/m3, µ = 1.002*10‐3Ns/m2 at 20°C. Using the
calculated settling velocity of the given sand as overflow rate, design
plain sedimentation tanks to be used to remove sand from river water
that is used to produce 20,000m3/d drinking water. Use two tanks.