Section A - Principles of

Chemistry
 Objectives
 Explain how evidence supports the particulate theory of matter
 Distinguish among the three states of matter
 Explain the changes between the three states of matter in terms of
energy and arrangement of particles
 distinguish between pure substances and mixtures
 Points to note
 Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, properties and reactions of matter. Everything around us is made of matter.
 Matter is anything that has volume and mass.
 All matter is made of particles and can exist in three different states:
 - The solid state
 - The liquid state
 - The gaseous state
 The particulate theory of matter
 There are four main ideas behind the particulate theory of matter:
 - All matter is composed of particles.
 -The particles are in constant motion and temperature affects their speed of motion.
 - The particles have empty spaces between them.
 - The particles have forces of attraction between them.
Points to note
 There are three different types of particles that make up matter:
 - Atoms are the smallest units of a chemical element which have all the characteristics of the
element. For example, iron is made of iron atoms, Fe.
 - Molecules are groups of two or more atoms bonded together and which can exist on their
own. Molecules may be made up of atoms of the same kind, e.g. hydrogen molecules, H 2 are
made up of hydrogen atoms, H. Molecules may also be made up of atoms of different kind s,
e.g. carbon dioxide molecules, CO2 are made up of carbon atoms, C, and oxygen atoms.
 -Ions are electrically charged particles. Ions may be formed from a single atom, e.g. the
potassium ion, K+ . They may also be formed from groups of two or more atoms bonded
together, e.g. the nitrate ion, NO-
Evidence to support
the particulate
theory of matter
 The processes of diffusion and osmosis provide
evidence to support the fact that all matter is made
of particles.
 Diffusion is the movement of particles from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration until the particles are evenly
distributed

 Particles in gases and liquids are capable of

diffusing.
Example of diffusion
 When pieces of cotton wool soaked in concentrated ammonia
solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid are placed
simultaneously at opposite ends of a glass tube, a white ring of
ammonium chloride forms inside the tube. Ammonia solution
gives off ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gives off hydrogen
chloride gas.
 The particles of the gases diffuse through the air inside the tube,
collide and react to form ammonium chloride: ammonia NH,(g) +
hydrogen chloride + HCI(g)  ammonium chloride NHCI(s)
 Ammonia particles diffuse faster than hydrogen chloride particles,
so the particles collide and react closer to the source of the
hydrogen chloride particles.
Evidence to support the
particulate theory of
matter
 Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a
differentially permeable membrane from a solution
containing a lot of water molecules, e.g. a dilute solution
(or water), to a solution containing fewer water
molecules, e.g. a concentrated solution.
Example of osmosis
 1) When a dilute sucrose solution is separated from a concentrated sucrose solution by a
differentially permeable membrane, water molecules move through the membrane from
the dilute solution into the concentrated solution, but the sucrose molecules cannot move
in the other direction.
 The volume of the concentrated solution increases and the volume of the dilute solution
decreases.
 2) The membranes of living cells are differentially permeable and the cytoplasm inside
the cells contains about 80% water.
 - When a strip of living tissue (such as paw-paw) is placed in water, water molecules
move into the cells by osmosis. Each cell swells slightly, and the strip increases in length
and becomes rigid.
 - When the strip is placed in a concentrated sodium chloride solution, water molecules
move out of the cells by osmosis. Each cell shrinks slightly, and the strip decreases in
length and becomes softer.
Uses of osmosis
 To control garden pests Slugs and snails are garden pests, whose skin is differentially permeable and
always moist.
 When salt (sodium chloride) is sprinkled on slugs and snails, it dissolves in the moisture around their
bodies forming a concentrated solution. Water inside their bodies then moves out by osmosis and into the
solution. The slugs and snails die from dehydration if their bodies lose more water than they can tolerate.
 To preserve food Salt and sugar are used to preserve foods such as meat, fish and fruit. They both work
in the same way:
 -They draw water out of the cells of the food by osmosis. This prevents the food from decaying
because there is no water available in the cells for the chemical reactions which cause the decay .
 - They draw water out of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) by osmosis. This prevents the food
from decaying because it inhibits the growth of the microorganisms that cause the decay.
States of matter
-Solid
-Liquid
-Gas
Changes of state
 Matter can exist in any of the three states depending on its temperature. It can change from one state
to another by heating or cooling, as this causes a change in the kinetic energy and arrangement of the
particles:
 When a solid is heated, it usually changes state to a liquid and then to a gas. This occurs because the
particles gain kinetic energy, move increasingly faster and further apart, and the forces of attraction
between them become increasingly weaker .
 When a gas is cooled, it usually changes state to a liquid and then to a solid. This occurs because
the particles lose kinetic energy, move more and more slowly and closer together, and the forces of
attraction between them become increasingly stronger.
 From liquid to gas can be evaporation or boiling
 - Evaporation and boiling are different in the following ways:
 • Evaporation can take place at any temperature, whereas boiling occurs at a specific temperature.
 • Evaporation takes place at the surface of the liquid only, whereas boiling takes place throughout
the liquid.
 Substances which sublimate (or sublime) change directly from a solidi o a gas. The reverse process
in which a gas changes directly to a solid is called deposition. Examples of substances that sublimate
include carbon dioxide ('dry ice'), iodine and naphthalene (moth balls)
Heating and cooling
curves
 • A heating curve is drawn when the temperature of a solid is measured at
intervals as it is heated and changes state to a liquid and then to a gas, and
the temperature is then plotted against time.
 • A cooling curve is drawn when the temperature of a gas is measured at
intervals as it is cooled and changes state to a liquid and then to a solid, and
the temperature is then plotted against time.
 The melting point is the constant temperature at which a solid changes state
into a liquid.
 The boiling point is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes state
into a gas.
 The freezing point is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes
slate into a solid
 Review questions
 1) Give the main ideas behind the particulate theory of matter.
 2 )Define the following: a diffusion b osmosis c melting point d boiling point
 3) By referring to particles, explain why: a when a crystal of red food colouring fell into a beaker of water, after a while
all the water became red. b when a strip of potato was placed into a concentrated sucrose solution it decreased in length.
 4 )Explain how salt (sodium chloride) works to preserve fish.
 5) By considering the arrangement of particles in each substance, explain why: a nitrogen gas is very easy to compress. b
a solid lump of lead has a fixed shape.
 6) Water can exist as solid ice, liquid water and gaseous steam. Explain the difference between these three states in terms
of the arrangement of their particles, the movement of their particles, and the forces of attraction between their particles.
 7) State TWO differences between evaporation and boiling.
 8) What happens when a substance sublimes?
Mixtures and
Separation
 Pure substances and Mixtures

 A pure substance is composed of a single type of material only.

 Any pure substance possesses certain general characteristics:
 - Its composition is fixed and constant.
 - Its properties are fixed and constant, for example, its melting point,
boiling point and density.
 - The component parts cannot be separated by any physical process.
 To find out if a substance is pure, its melting point or boiling point can
be measured. If any impurities are present they will usually lower its
melting point and raise its boiling point.
Elements
 Elements are the simplest form of matter.
 An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
using any ordinary physical or chemical process.
 An atom is the smallest particle in any element. Each element is composed of atoms of
one kind only.
 Most elements are made up of individual atoms, e.g. silver (Ag) is made up of
individual silver atoms. A few elements are made up of molecules, e.g. nitrogen (N,) is
made up of nitrogen molecules, each molecule being composed of two nitrogen atoms.
 There are 118 known elements and they can be classified as metals or non-metals.
Compounds
 A compound is a pure substance that is formed from two or more different types of elements which
are chemically bonded together in fixed proportions and in a way that their properties have changed.
 Example : sodium + chlorine ---... sodium chloride
 (element) (element) (compound)
 The proportions, by mass, of sodium and chlorine in any pure sample of sodium chloride are always
the same and the elements cannot be separated by physical means because they are chemically
bonded together.
 The properties of sodium chloride are different from those of both sodium and chlorine.
Compounds can be represented by chemical formulae, e.g. the chemical formula for sodium
chloride is NaCI and for water it is H2 0.
Mixtures
 A mixture consists of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) which
are physically combined together in variable proportions. Each component retains its
own individual properties and is not chemically bonded to any other component of
the mixture.
 Any mixture possesses certain general characteristics:
 -Its composition can vary.
 - Its properties are variable because its component parts keep their individual
properties.
 - Its component parts can be separated by physical means
Types of mixtures
 Homogeneous mixtures
 -A homogeneous mixture is a uniform mixture; it has the same composition
and properties throughout the mixture. It is not possible to distinguish the
component parts from each other. All solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
 Heterogeneous mixtures
 -A heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniform mixture; it is possible to
distinguish the component parts from each other, though not always with the
naked eye. Heterogeneous mixtures include suspensions and colloids.