Introduction

• Wide variety of relatively heavy machines which perform specific

construction (or demolition) functions under power
• Used to perform repetitive operations

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 Advantages of Utilizing Construction Equipment

 Increase the rate of output

 Reduce the overall construction costs
 Carry out activities which cannot be done manually
 Eliminate the heavy manual work
 Maintain the planned rate of production
 Maintain the high quality standards

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 Types of Construction Equipment and their
Selection Criteria

• Earthwork equipment

• Concreting equipment

• Hoisting equipment

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 Types of Earthwork Equipment

 Backhoe Roller compactor

 Front shovel Scraper

 Dragline Dumper

 Clamshell Grader

 Dozers

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 Backhoe

Used to:
• Clean up construction areas
• Dig holes in the ground
• Smoothen uneven ground
• Make trenches and ditches
• Remove deep roots from trees 

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 Front shovel

• Excavation purposes above its

own track or wheel level
• Heavy positive cutting in all types
of dry soils

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 Dragline

• Bulk excavation below its track

level
• Suitable for
– loose soils
– marshy land
– areas containing water

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 Clamshell

• Hydraulically controlled bucket

suspended from a lifting arm
• Deep confined cutting in pits
and trenches

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 Dozers

• Moving earth up to a distance

of about 100m and
• Towing tractor and pusher to
scraper machine
• Track-mounted or wheel-
mounted

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 Roller compactor
• Compaction of earth and other materials
• Large works of highways, canals and airports

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment
• Light soil compacting equipment
– used for soil compacting of small areas only and where the compacting effort
needed is less

1. Rammers
– Used for compacting small areas by providing impact load to the
soil
– Hand or machine operated
– Base - 15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Light soil compacting equipment – contd..
1. Rammers – contd..
– Machine operated rammers, the usual weight varies from 30kg
to 10 tons
– These hammers with 2- 3 tons weights are allowed to free fall
from a height of 1m to 2m (3ft to 7ft) on the soil for the
compaction of rock fragments

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Light soil compacting equipment – contd..
1. Rammers – contd..
– Suitable for compacting cohesive soils as well as other soils
– Areas with difficulty in access

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Light soil compacting equipment – contd..
2. Vibrating Plate Compactors
– Vibrating plate compactors are used for compaction of coarse
soils with 4 to 8% fines
– Used for small areas
– Weight - 100 kg to 2 ton with plate areas between 0.16 m2 and
1.6 m2

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment
– Used for large areas for use on different types of soils
– Selected based on moisture content of soil and types of soil
1. Smooth Wheeled Rollers
– Two types
• Static smooth wheeled rollers
• Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers

– Well graded sand, gravel, crushed rock, asphalt etc. where

crushing is required

– Soils which does not require great pressure for compaction

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
1. Smooth Wheeled Rollers – contd..
Static smooth wheeled rollers
• Performance depends on load per cm width transferred to the soil
and diameter of the drum
• Gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tons 

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
1. Smooth Wheeled Rollers – contd..
Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers
• Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work
• Compaction can be done up to greater depths
• Output is many times more than conventional rollers 

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
2. Sheepsfoot Rollers
– Used for compacting fine grained soils such as heavy clays and
silty clays
– Compaction of soils in dams, embankments, subgrade layers in
pavements and rail road construction projects

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
2. Sheepsfoot Rollers – contd..
– Static and vibratory types
– Vibratory types - compaction of all fine grained soils and also soil
with sand-gravel mixes - compaction of subgrade layers in road
and rail projects

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
3. Pneumatic Tyred Rollers
– Also called as rubber tyred rollers
– Compaction of coarse grained soils with some fines
– least suitable for uniform coarse soils and rocks
– Used in pavement subgrade works both earthwork and
bituminous works

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
4. Grid Rollers
– Used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded coarse
soils
– Not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays and uniform soils
– Main use - subgrade and sub-base in road constructions

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
5. Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers
– Have static weights in the range of 15 to 40 tons and their static
linear drum loads are between 30 and 80 kg/cm
– These rollers are more preferable than sheepsfoot roller due to
their high production capacity

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 Types of Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
• Heavy Soil Compaction Equipment – contd..
5. Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers – contd..
– Degree of compaction achieved is more than sheepsfoot rollers
– Density of soil achieved after compaction is more uniform
– best suitable for compacting cohesive soils

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 Scraper

• Site leveling, loading, hauling over distances varying between

150m-900m
• Towed, two-axle or three-axle type

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 Dumper

• Horizontal transportation of
materials on and off sites
• Large capacity dumpers used
in mines and quarries

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 Grader

• Grading and finishing upper

surface of earthen formations
and embankments
• Operates in the forward
direction

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 Selection Criteria for Earthwork Equipment

Dependent on the following factors:

 Quantities of material to be moved
 Available time to complete the work
 Job conditions
 Prevailing soil types, swell and compaction factors, etc.

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 Selection Criteria for Earthwork Equipment –
contd..
Planning of number of Earthwork Equipment , depends on:

 Suitable class of equipment for earthwork

 Appropriate model of equipment
 Number of equipment needed
 Number of associated equipment required

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 Crusher

Selection
• Type of material to be crushed with the crusher
• The maximum size of the stones that crusher is able to face
• Feeding method to the crusher
• Capacity per hour, capacity per day of the crusher
• Efficiency of the crusher

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 Types of Crusher

• Primary crusher
– Has the ability to receive the
crushing material directly
from the source 

– Only for the breaking of large

stones into pieces

– Not for the aggregate size

material

– Jaw crusher; gyratory crusher Jaw Crusher 30

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 Types of Crusher – contd..
Gyratory Crusher

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 Types of Crusher – contd..

• Secondary crusher
– Further reduces the size

– Some sizes of stones may

pass directly from sieve
number 4

– Cone crusher, roll crusher

and hammer mill crusher

Cone Crusher
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 Types of Crusher – contd..
Roll Crusher

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 Types of Crusher – contd..
Hammer Mill Crusher

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 Types of Crusher – contd..

• Tertiary crusher
– Reduces the size of
crushed pieces very
much to the required size

– Tertiary crushers are at

the job site and these are
small in size

– Ball mill crusher

Ball Mill Crusher
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 Types of Concreting Equipment

 Concrete batching and mixing plant

 Concrete mixers
 Concrete transit mixers
 Concrete pumps

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 Concrete batching and mixing plant

• Weighing and mixing large

quantity of concrete
constituents

• Capacity:- 20cum/hr-250cum/hr

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 Concrete mixers

• Mixing small quantities of

concrete constituents

• Capacity:-
– 200lt/batch (small mixers)
– 200-750lt/batch(large mixers)

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 Concrete transit mixers

• Transporting concrete from

batching point

• Capacity:- 3cum-9cum

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 Concrete pumps

• Horizontal and vertical

transportation of large volumes of
concrete in short duration

• Capacity:-
– 30cum/hr(ordinary
construction)
– 120cum/hr(specialized
construction)

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 Selection Criteria for Concreting Equipment

 Site characteristics

 Equipment availability

 Continuity of operation

 Effect of permanent work

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 Selection Criteria for Concreting Equipment (cont…)

 Weather conditions

 Temporary works

 Time restrictions

 Concrete specifications

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 Selection Criteria for Concreting Equipment (cont…)

Concrete-mixing equipment selection will depend on

following factors:
 Maximum and the total output required in a given time frame
 Method of transporting the mixed concrete
 Requirement of discharge height of the mixer

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 Selection Criteria for Concreting Equipment (cont…)

Concrete-placement equipment selection depends on

following factors:

• Capacity of the vehicle

• Output of the vehicle
• Site characteristics
• Weather conditions
• Rental costs, and the
• Temporary haul roads

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 Hoisting Equipment
Group of equipment employed mainly for lifting or lowering of unit
load and others

Hoisting Equipment

Hoists

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 Boom Hoist

• Lifting of weights on hooks - bear

maximum loads

• Industrial machine- loads weight on

containers

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 Chain Hoist

• Used in most of the construction

and industrial operations

• Chain rope and pulley used to

move the load from up to down

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 Electric Hoist

• Modernized form of chain and boom

hoist
• Used industries for fast working
• Popular in material handling
industries
• Saves labor costs by handling
maximum loads at a time with no
damage threats

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 Tractor Hoist

• Consist of a boom that is attached

with base of tractor

• A hook with rope - driver controls

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 Cranes

• One of the most important equipment

• Key role in performing lifting tasks

• Categorized into:
– Derrick Cranes
– Mobile Cranes
– Tower Cranes

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 Selection of Cranes

Factors affecting the selection of cranes are:

• Building Design

– Building height
– Project duration
• Capability

– Power supply
– Load lifting frequency
– Operators visibility
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 Selection of Cranes – contd..
• Safety
–
Initial planning and engineering
• Economy
– Cost of move in, setup, and move out
– Cost for rent
– Productivity
• Site Conditions
– Soil Stability and ground conditions
– Access road requirement and site accessibility
– Operating clearance 52
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 Mobile Cranes

• Adequate for all types of structures (up to 107 m)

• Used for shorter projects duration (less than 4 months)

• Not considered to be very safe due to
– lack of safety devices

– limited switches to prevent overloading

• Can operate in muddy terrain but requires good ground conditions
• Needs adequate operating clearance

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 Mobile Cranes

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 Tower Cranes

• Preferable for high-rise (over 107 m)

• Used for longer project duration

• Considered to be very safe due to the presence of limit switches
• Can operate where ground conditions are poor

• Does not need adequate operating clearance

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 Tower Cranes

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 Derrick Cranes

• Preferable for high-rise and apartment buildings

• Can be used for both long term and short term projects
• Cheaper than mobile and tower cranes
• Not considered to be safe

• Used when
– clearance is inadequate for the other units
– sufficient space is unavailable for the erection of a tower
foundation
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 Derrick Cranes

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 Plant and equipment acquisition

A construction company can acquire a construction plant and

equipment through
 Cash or outright purchase
 Renting
 Leasing

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 Identification, Selection and Planning of Equipment

1 ●
Economic Considerations

2 ●
Company-Specific

3 ●
Site-Specific

4 ●
Equipment-Specific

5 ●
Client and Project-Specific

6 ●
Manufacturer-Specific

7 ●
Labour Consideration

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 Identification, Selection and Planning of Equipment

Cycle capacity (C) - number of output units per cycle of operation

under standard work conditions

C=TxR

where, T = units of time per cycle of operation

R = number of output units per unit time (standard production
rate)

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 Identification, Selection and Planning of Equipment

Daily standard production rate, Pe of an excavator, given by,

Pe = Re x He

where Re = Standard production rate = (Ce / Te)

He = No. of operating hours
Ce = cycle capacity (in units of volume)
Te = cycle time (in hours)

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 Identification, Selection and Planning of Equipment

For a hauler, cycle time is given by

where, D = Dump site distance

S = Average speed of the hauler
Td = Dumping time
Te = Cycle Time
Ce = Excavator capacity
Ch = Hauler capacity
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 Identification, Selection and Planning of Equipment

Q. A power shovel with a dipper of one cubic meter capacity has a

standard operating cycle time of 30 seconds. Find the daily
standard production rate of the shovel.

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 Planning Equipment Utilization
• Match the right machine or
combination of machines to the job

• Match the equipment spread’s

production against its cost

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 Planning Equipment Utilization – contd..

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 Planning Equipment Utilization – contd..

• Calculate quantity take-off

• Analyze machine capability and methods of employment
• Select equipment with lowest estimated total cost

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 Equipment Replacement Decision

Identifying the most economical equipment

Costs to be considered:

• Depreciation:
(First cost – Salvage value)
– Determine the first cost of the new equipment
– Estimate its service life and salvage value
– Determine the market value of the old equipment
– Estimate its remaining service life and future salvage value

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 Equipment Replacement Decision

• Interest
Owning an asset ties up some of your capital
– Determine the out-of-pocket cost of owning the equipment

• Operating Costs
– Expenditures for labor, materials, supervision, maintenance, and
power
– Determine the cost of operation

• Revenues
– Consider revenues if affected by choice of equipment
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 Depreciation

• ‘Depreciation’ – a gradual change (reduction) in the value of an

asset

• Allocation of the cost of an asset

• Decline in the value of an asset

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 Depreciation and Taxation

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 Methods of Calculating Depreciation

1. Straight Line Method

2. Sum of Years Digit Method
3. Declining Balance Method
4. Accelerated Recovery Systems
5. Other Methods

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 Effect of Depreciation & Tax on Selection of Alternative

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 Pre-tax Cash Flow diagram for Equipment A

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 Post-tax Cash Flow diagram for Equipment A

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 Pre-tax Cash Flow diagram for Equipment B

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 Post-tax Cash Flow diagram for Equipment B

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 Evaluating Replacement Alternatives

 Steps involved in replacement analysis are:

 Calculate depreciation and replacement cost
 Calculate investment cost for equipments
 Forecast maintenance and repair cost
 Forecast downtime and loss of productivity cost
 Calculate obsolescence cost
 Calculate total cost per year
 Plot total cost per year for different years

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 Advanced Concepts in Economic Analysis

Different forms of sensitivity analysis and the methods of presentation of the results

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 Advanced Concepts in Economic Analysis

Sensitivity graph showing the effect of changes in incomings on

net present worth
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 Advanced Concepts in Economic Analysis (Contd…)

Family of curves for example problem

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 Advanced Concepts in Economic Analysis (Contd…)
(R,N)

Isoquants for the example problem

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 Advanced Concepts in Economic Analysis (Contd…)

Sensitivity analysis for more than one alternative

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 Break-even Analysis

 Another way of performing sensitivity analysis

 Break-even point: Value at which the reversal of decision takes

place

 Or, minimum quantity at which loss is avoided

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 Break-even Analysis (Contd…)

 Effect on the project due to following reasons are considered

 Invoice or billing declines,
 Costs increase, etc.

 Quantity to be produced and sold at a minimum

 Also referred to as cost-volume-profit analysis

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 Break-even Analysis (Contd…)

 Addresses the decision of

 whether to make or buy a product
 whether to own or rent an equipment

 Making a product involves two cost elements:

 Fixed costs
 Variable costs

 Buying a product involves only one cost element, the selling price

 Price may either be constant or variable based on the quantity

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 Linear Breakeven Analysis: Example

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 Safety

• Construction - poorest safety records

• Major causes of deaths and injuries are
– Falls from elevations

– Electrocution

– Being struck by equipment

– Being caught in between equipment

– Trench excavation cave-ins

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 Safety in Civil Operations

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 Fencing of Machinery

• All rotating parts & gears

• Not to remove fencing of dangerous parts

of machinery while in operation

• When removed, replace as soon as

practicable and before brought into use

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 Work near Overhead Power Line

Minimum Clearance – 6m

If necessary to operate with clearance less than above, power lines

shall invariably be shut off during the operation

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 Earth Moving Machinery

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 Power Shovels (Excavators)

• Check: Bucket teeth should never come

nearer less than 40 cm to boom
• Location of any underground power cables
in the area of operations
• Not advisable to be under raised bucket
• When not in use, bucket be rested on
ground
• Away from the edge 2m or half the depth
whichever is more

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 Bulldozer

• Uphill - blade shall be kept low

• Running down - lowest gear
• Blade shouldn’t be used as brake
• Don’t allow riders on the machine
• Traveling - blade - lowest possible
position
• Inspection of blade suspension
arrangement

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 Lifting & Hoisting Machinery

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 Stability

Following misadventures to be avoided to avoid over-turning:

• Taking load in excess of SWL
• Braking suddenly in order to arrest descending load
• Sudden release of a heavy load

• Pulling loads from the sides

• Operating the crane without sufficient counter-weight

• Positioning the crane at a steep slope

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 Mobile Cranes

• While traveling up; derrick out the load

• While traveling down; derrick in the load
• Engine & gear condition while move down the hill
• Fully extended outriggers while lifting the load
• Horn, Head light, side lamp, rear & stop lights
• Tag line

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 Passenger Hoist

Safety Measures

 SWL displayed
 Secondary defense
 Provision for emergency stops
 Drop test
 Experienced and qualified operator
 Interlocks

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 Vehicles

• Vehicle in condition

• Speed At site 20 KMPH

• Reverse horn

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 IfIfthe
thepump
pumpbecomes
becomesenergized,
energized,everything
everythingthat
that
touchesthe
touches thepump
pumpisisalso
alsoenergized
energized

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 Useaaspotter,
Use spotter,when
whenthe
theboom
boomisisin
inaaconfined
confinedarea
area

• Spotter should warn the operator if he is nearing trouble.

• Two sets of eyes are better than one.

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 Neveropen
Never openaaPressurized
PressurizedLine
Line

• A plugged line may have maximum pump pressure inside

• Wait until the operator reverses the pump and tells you that it is safe
to open the pipe

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 Summary

• The three basic categories of equipment used in construction are earthwork

equipment, concreting equipment and hoisting equipment
• Selection and planning of equipment depends on a number of factors such as
size of the job, cost, time constraint, equipment characteristics, site conditions,
etc
• Equipment replacement decisions depend upon depreciation, interest and
operation costs and revenue of a project
• Most of the accidents with respect to equipments can be avoided if suitable
safety measures are taken during equipment operation

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 Summary – contd..

Factors affecting the selection of cranes are:

• Building Design
– Building height
– Project duration
• Capability
– Power supply
– Load lifting frequency

– Operators visibility

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 Summary – contd..

Factors affecting the selection of cranes are:

• Safety
– Initial planning and engineering
• Economy
– Cost of move in, setup, and move out
– Cost for rent
– Productivity
• Site Conditions
– Soil Stability and ground conditions
– Access road requirement and site accessibility
– Operating clearance

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 Summary – contd..

Mobile Cranes
• Adequate for all types of structures (up to 107 m)
• Used for shorter projects duration (less than 4 months)
• Not considered to be very safe due to

– lack of safety devices

– limited switches to prevent overloading
• Can operate in muddy terrain but requires good ground conditions

• Needs adequate operating clearance

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 Summary – contd..

Tower Cranes:
• Preferable for high-rise (over 107 m)
• Used for longer project duration
• Considered to be very safe due to the presence of limit switches

• Can operate where ground conditions are poor

• Does not need adequate operating clearance

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 Summary – contd..

Derrick Cranes:
• Preferable for high-rise and apartment buildings
• Can be used for both long term and short term projects
• Cheaper than mobile and tower cranes

• Not considered to be safe

• Used when
– clearance is inadequate for the other units

– sufficient space is unavailable for the erection of a tower

foundation 109
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