UNIT III: Relational Database

Management System
Relational Data Base Management System: Concept of RDBMS, Its Characteristics And
Advantages, Codd’s 12 Rules, Database Security, Introduction To RDBMS.
Concept of RDBMS

 Characteristics of Relational Database Model

 1. Each relation in a database must have a distinct or unique name which would separate it from
the other relations in a database
 2. A relation must not have two attributes with the same name. Each attribute must have a
distinct name.
 3. Duplicate tuples must not be present in a relation.
 Concept of RDBMS

 Characteristics of Relational Database Model

 4. Each tuple must have exactly one data value for an attribute.

 5. Tuples in a relation do not have to follow a significant order as the relation is not order-sensitive.
 6. Similarly, the attributes of a relation also do not have to follow certain ordering, it’s up to the developer to
decide the ordering of attributes.
Advantages of RDBMS
 Advantages of RDBMS

1. Simple Model
A Relational Database system is the most simple model, as it does not require any complex structuring or
querying processes. It doesn’t involve tedious architectural processes like hierarchical database structuring
or definition. As the structure is simple, it is sufficient to be handled with simple SQL queries and does not
require complex queries to be designed.

2. Data Accuracy
In the relational database system, there can be multiple tables related to one another with the use of a
primary key and foreign key concepts. This makes the data to be non-repetitive. There is no chance for
duplication of data. Hence the accuracy of data in the relational database is more than any other database
system.
 Advantages of RDBMS

3. Easy Access to Data

In the Relational Database System, there is no pattern or pathway for accessing the data, as to another type
of databases can be accessed only by navigating through a tree or a hierarchical model. Anyone who
accesses the data can query any table in the relational database. 

4. Data Integrity
Data integrity is a crucial characteristic of the Relational Database system. Sturdy Data entries and
legitimacy validations ensure that all the Data in the database confines within suitable arrangements and
the data necessary for creating the relationships are present. This relational reliability amongst the tables in
the database helps in avoiding the records from being imperfect, isolated or unrelated. 
 Advantages of RDBMS

5. Flexibility
A Relational Database system by itself possesses qualities for leveling up, expanding for bigger lengths, as
it is endowed with a bendable structure to accommodate the constantly shifting requirements. This
facilitates the increasing incoming amount of data, as well as the update and deletes wherever required. 

6. Normalization
The methodical style is maintained for making sure of a relational database structure is liberated of any
variances that can make a difference in the integrity and accuracy of the tables in the database. A
normalization process provides a set of regulations, characteristics, and purposes for the database structure
and evaluation of a relational database model.
Advantages of RDBMS

 7. High Security:
As the data is divided amongst the tables of the relational database system, it is possible to
make a few tables to be tagged as confidential and others not. This segregation is easily
implemented with a relational database management system, unlike other databases. 

 8. Feasible for Future Modifications:

As the relational database system holds records in separate tables based on their categories, it
is straightforward to insert, delete or update records that are subjected to the latest
requirements. This feature of the relational database model tolerates the newest requirements
that are presented by the business
Codd's 12 Rules

 Dr Edgar F. Codd, after his extensive research on the Relational Model of database
systems, came up with twelve rules of his own, which according to him, a database must
obey in order to be regarded as a true relational database.
 These rules can be applied on any database system that manages stored data using only its
relational capabilities. This is a foundation rule, which acts as a base for all the other rules.
Codd's 12 Rules
 Rule 1: Information Rule
The data stored in a database, may it be user data or metadata, must be a value of some table
cell. Everything in a database must be stored in a table format.

 Rule 2: Guaranteed Access Rule

Every single data element (value) is guaranteed to be accessible logically with a combination
of table-name, primary-key (row value), and attribute-name (column value). No other means,
such as pointers, can be used to access data.

 Rule 3: Systematic Treatment of NULL Values

The NULL values in a database must be given a systematic and uniform treatment. This is a
very important rule because a NULL can be interpreted as one the following − data is missing,
data is not known, or data is not applicable.
Codd's 12 Rules
 Rule 4: Active Online Catalog
The structure description of the entire database must be stored in an online catalog, known
as data dictionary, which can be accessed by authorized users. Users can use the same query
language to access the catalog which they use to access the database itself.

 Rule 5: Comprehensive Data Sub-Language Rule

A database can only be accessed using a language having linear syntax that supports data
definition, data manipulation, and transaction management operations. This language can be
used directly or by means of some application. If the database allows access to data without
any help of this language, then it is considered as a violation.

 Rule 6: View Updating Rule

All the views of a database, which can theoretically be updated, must also be updatable by the
system.
Codd's 12 Rules
 Rule 7: High-Level Insert, Update, and Delete Rule
A database must support high-level insertion, updation, and deletion. This must not be limited
to a single row, that is, it must also support union, intersection and minus operations to yield
sets of data records.

 Rule 8: Physical Data Independence

The data stored in a database must be independent of the applications that access the database.
Any change in the physical structure of a database must not have any impact on how the data
is being accessed by external applications.

 Rule 9: Logical Data Independence

The logical data in a database must be independent of its user’s view (application). Any
change in logical data must not affect the applications using it. For example, if two tables are
merged or one is split into two different tables, there should be no impact or change on the
user application. This is one of the most difficult rule to apply.
Codd's 12 Rules
 Rule 10: Integrity Independence
A database must be independent of the application that uses it. All its integrity constraints can
be independently modified without the need of any change in the application. This rule makes
a database independent of the front-end application and its interface.

 Rule 11: Distribution Independence

The end-user must not be able to see that the data is distributed over various locations. Users
should always get the impression that the data is located at one site only. This rule has been
regarded as the foundation of distributed database systems.

 Rule 12: Non-Subversion Rule

If a system has an interface that provides access to low-level records, then the interface must
not be able to subvert the system and bypass security and integrity constraints.
 DATABASE SECURITY
 Database Security contains policies and mechanisms to protect the data and ensure that it is not
accessed,altered or deleted without proper authorization.Database security methods focus on preventing
unauthorized users from accessing the database because DBMS features that make the database easy to
access and manipulate ,also open doors to intruders,most DBMS’s include security features that allow only
authorized persons or programs to access data and then restrict the types of processing that can be
accomplished once access is made.

 IMPORTANCE OF DATA
 Bank/Demat Accounts
 Credit card,
 Salary,
 Income tax data
 University Admissions, marks/grades.
 Land records,
 Licenses
 Medical Records
CIA

 Confidentiality: Information should not be disclosed to unauthorized users.

 Integrity: Only authorized users should be allowed to modify data.

 Availability: Authorized users should not be denied access.

NEED FOR DATABASE SECURITY

 It protects data from unauthorized users from altering and deleting data.
 It protects data from hacking by implementing Security mechanisms.
 It allows users to access only that data what is required by enabling necessary access
permissions.
 It implements encryption, decryption, firewalls, antivirus software , database backups,
physical and logical security on the database.
PROBLEMS IN DATABASE SECURITY

 People
 Natural disasters
 Malicious code
 Technological Disaster
 PROBLEMS IN DATABASE SECURITY
 1.People: People intentionally or unintentionally inflict damage, violation ,or destruction to all or
violation ,or destruction to all or any of the database environment components (people, applications,
networks, operating systems, database management systems, data files or data)
Example:Employees,Contractors,Consultants,Visitors,Hackers,Terrorists

 2.Malicious Code: Software code that in most cases is intentionally written to damage or violate one
or more of the database environment components . Example: Viruses, Boot Sector viruses, Worms,
Trojan horses, Bugs.

 3.Natural disaster: Calamities caused by nature, which can destroy any or all of the database
environment components. Example: Hurricanes, Tornados, Earthquakes, Flood, Fire
 Technological disasters: Often caused by some sort of malfunction in equipment or hardware,
technological disasters can inflict damage to networks, operating systems, database management
systems, datafiles or data.
Example:Power failure,Media failure,Hardware failure,Network failure
DATABASE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS:
 Protection from unauthorized access.
 Protection from Inference.
 Integrity of database.
 User Authentication.
 Management and Protection of Sensitive data.
DATABASE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS:
 1. Protection from unauthorized access: It protects the data from being accessed by the
unauthorized users. The requirement which has been sent by user or applications to access
database or files should be verified by database management system. It should check
whether the user is authorized or not. However, the access control for database is quite
difficult than to control the files, since the control in database is to be applied to each and
every attribute and value of the database.

 2. Protection from Inference. Inference refers to the protection of data from a type of
threat where in an unauthorized user tries to extract or retrieve the confidential information
from non-confidential data. Here, the hacker usually targets the statistical databases and
hence precautions should be taken to protect each entity right from statistical aggregated
information in order to prevent the statical database from such threats.
DATABASE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS:
 3.Integrity of Database: It refers to the protection of database from unauthorized access.
The threats can be either in the form of errors, virus, failures in the system or modification
of contents present in data. However, protection for database is provided by database
management system, backup and recovery procedures and adhoc security procedures.
Backup and recovery procedures preserve the consistency of data using atomicity .That is,
the modifications performed on data are made permanent after the termination of
transaction, thus preserving its consistency. Whereas, the adhoc security procedure protects
the data from unauthorized modifications, insertions and deletions.
DATABASE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS:
 4.User Authentication: It refers to the identification of the database users. This
requirement is used to enable on the authorized users to access the data.
 5.Management and protection of Sensitive data: It protects the sensitive data from being
accessed by unauthorized users. Database consists of the type of data which can either be
sensitive, public or both. Thus, this requirement protects the contents of all types of data
from hackers.
Security Levels
 Physical: The sites containing the computer systems must be secured against armed or
surreptitious entry by intruders.
 Human: Users must be authorized carefully to reduce the chance of any such user giving
access to an intruder in exchange for a bribe or other favors .
 Operating System: No matter how secure the database system is, weakness in operating
system security may serve as a means of unauthorized access to the database.
 Network: Since almost all database systems allow remote access through terminals or
networks, software-level security within the network software is as important as physical
security, both on the Internet and in networks private to an enterprise.
 Database System: Some database-system users may be authorized to access only a limited
portion of the database. Other users may be allowed to issue queries, but may be forbidden
to modify the data. It is responsibility of the database system to ensure that these
authorization restrictions are not violated.
Introduction to RDBMS

 RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS data is structured
in database tables, fields and records.
 Each RDBMS table consists of database table rows. Each database table row consists of
one or more database table fields.
 RDBMS store the data into collection of tables, which might be related by common fields
(database table columns).
 RDBMS also provide relational operators to manipulate the data stored into the database
tables.
 Most RDBMS use SQL as database query language. The most popular RDBMS are MS
SQL Server, DB2, Oracle and MySQL
Introduction to RDBMS

 The goal of a relational database design is to generate a set of relation schema that allows
us to store information without unnecessary redundancy and also to retrieve information
easily.
 A database system is an integrated collection of related files, along with details of
interpretation of the data contained therein. DBMS is a s/w system that allows access to
data contained in a database.
Introduction to RDBMS
Fill in the blanks

 1) A relation in a relational database is based on a relational schema, which consists of

number of ………………… .
 2) …………………is a Relational Data Base Management System.
 3) Rows of the relation are referred to as ………………… of the relation
 4) The relational model was designed by the IBM research scientist and mathematician, Dr.
………………….
 5) The ………………… is the only data structure used in the relational data model to
represent both entities and relationships between them
State true or false

 1) The normal forms never removes anomalies.

 2) Each attribute of the column are drawn from the set of values known as domain.
 3) The first database systems were based on either network or hierarchical models .
 4) Most RDBMS use SQL as database query language.
 5) Relational database design makes data retrieval difficult.