MODULE 1

Introduction to Data
Communication and
Networking
 Telecommunication – communication at
distance (tele Greek for far)
 Data Communication – is the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as wire cable
 The effectiveness of data communications system
depends on three fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery – The system must deliver data to the

correct destination
2. Accuracy – The system must deliver the data
accurately.
3. Timeliness – the system must deliver data in a
timely manner.
COMPONENTS

– data communication have five components

1. Message – is the uniform (data) to be

communicated
2. Sender - device that sends the data
3. Receiver – device that receives the data
4. Medium – the physical path by which a message
travels from the sender to receiver
5. Protocol – a set of rules that governs data
communications
Components
Data Representation

TEXT
1. ASCII - the American National Standard Institute
(ANSI) developed a code called American Standard
Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This cod
uses 7 bits for each symbol. This means 128 different
symbols can defined by this code.
2. Extended ASCII – to make the size of each pattern 1
byte (8bits), the ASCII bit patterns are augmented with
an extra 0 at the left. Now each pattern is exactly 1 byte
of memory. The first pattern is 00000000 and the last
one is 11111111.
Data Representation

TEXT
3. Unicode – a coalition of hardware and software
manufacturers have designed Unicode that uses 16
bits and represents up to 65,536 symbols.
4. ISO – the International Organization for
Standardization known as ISO, has designed a code
using 32-bit pattern. This code represents up to
4,294,967,296 symbols, which is definitely enough
to represent any symbol in the world today.
Data Representation

NUMBERS are also represented by using bit

patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not
used to represent numbers; the number is
directly converted to a binary number.
Images are also represented by bit patterns. An
image divided into matrix of pixels (picture
element), where each pixel is a small dot. The
size of the pixel depends on what is called the
resolution.
Data Representation

Audio is a representation of sound. Audio is by

nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is
continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an electrical
signal, we create continuous signal.

Video can be produce either as a continuous entity

(e.g., by TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the
idea of motion.
Direction of data flow

1. Simplex – the communication is

unidirectional. Only one of two devices on a
link can transmit; the other can only receive.
2. Half-Duplex – each station can both transmit
and receive, but not at the same time. When one
is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa.
3. Full-Duplex – (also called duplex), both
stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
Networks

A Network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links. A node can
be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network. A Link is a communication pathway
that transfers data from one device to another.
Distributed Processing
Most network use distributed processing, in which
a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead
of a single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
Network criteria

1. Performance can be measured in so many ways,

including transit time and response time. Transit time
is the amount of time required for a message to travel
from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and response.
2. Reliability. Network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from failure, and the network’s robustness in a
catastrophe.
3. Security. Network security issues protecting data
from unauthorized access.
Type of connection

1. Point-to-point – provides a dedicated link between

two device
2. Multipoint – (also called multidrop) is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link.
Physical topology

 The term physical topology refers to the way in

which a network is laid out physically
 Two or more devices connect to a link; to or more
links from a topology.
 The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.
 There are four basic topologies possible: mesh,
star, bus, and ring
 Topology

Mesh Star Bus Ring

1. Mesh
 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated
point-to-point link to every other device.
 The term dedicated mans that the link carries
traffic only between the two devices it connects.
 A fully connected mesh network therefore has
n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
 To accommodate that many links, every devices on
the network must have n-1 input/output (I/O)
ports.
1. Mesh
Adv.
 Use of dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur
when links must be shared by multiple
devices.
 Robust
 Privacy or Security
1. Mesh
Dis.
 Because every device must be connected to
every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult
 The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater
than the available space
1. Mesh
2. Star
 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called hub.
Adv.
 less expensive than a mesh topology
 Robust
Dis.
 More cabling is required compared to other
topologies (such as ring and bus)
2. Star
3. Bus
 a bus topology is multipoint
 One long cable acts as backbone to link all the
device in a network
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop
lines and taps.
 A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a
cable to create a contact with the metallic core
3. Bus
Adv.
 Ease of installation
 Uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies

Dis.
 Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
 Fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission
3. Bus
4. Ring
 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point connection only with the two
devices on either side of it.
Adv.
 Easy to install and reconfigure
 Fault isolation is simplified
Dis.
 a break in the ring can disable the entire network
4. Ring
CATEGORIES OF NETWORK

Network

Metropolitan-
Local-area Wide-area
area network
network (LAN) network (WAN)
(MAN)
CATEGORIES OF NETWORK

Local Area Network (LAN)

 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned
and links the device in a single office building, or campus.
 LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by
their transmission media topology.
 The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
 Traditionally, LANs have data rates in the 4 to 16
megabits per second (Mbps) range.
 Today, however, speeds are increasing and can reach 100
Mbps with gigabit systems in development.
CATEGORIES OF NETWORK

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 A metropolitan-area network (MAN) is designed to extend
over an entire city.
 It may be single network such as cable television network,
or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into
a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN-to-
LAN as well as device-to-device.
 For example, a company use a MAN to connect the LANs
in all its offices throughout a city.
 Many telephone companies provide a popular MAN service
called Switched Multi-megabit Data Services (SMDS).
CATEGORIES OF NETWORK

Wide Area Network (WAN)

 a wide area network (WAN) provides long-
distance transmission of data, voice image, and
video information over geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the
whole world.

*Internetworks When two or more networks are

connected, they become an internetwork, or
internet.
 PROTOCOLS
AND STANDARDS
PROTOCOLS

 A protocol is a set of rules that governs data

communications.
 A protocol defines
what is communicated,
how it is communicated and
when it is communicated.
 The key elements are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
PROTOCOLS

 1. Syntax – refers to the structure or format of

the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
 2. Semantics – refers to the meaning of each
section of bits.
 3. timing – refers to the two characteristics:
when data should be send, and how fast they
can be sent.
STANDARDS

 Standards are essential in creating and

maintaining an open and competitive market
for equipment manufacturers and in
guaranteeing interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and
processes.
STANDARDS

 They provide guidelines to manufacturers,

vendors, government agencies, and other
service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today’s
marketplace and international communications.
 Data communication standards fall in two
categories: de facto (meaning “fact” or “by
convention”) and de jure (meaning “by law” or
“by regulation”.
STANDARDS

1. De Facto. Standards that have not been

approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread use are
de facto standards. De facto standards are often
established originally by manufacturers that
seek to define the functionality of a new product
or technology.
STANDARDS

2. De jure. Those have been legislated

by an official recognized body are de jure
standards
STANDARDS
ORGANIZATION
 Standardsare developed through the
cooperation of standards creation committees,
forums, and government regulatory agencies.
STANDARD CREATION
COMMITEES
 While many organization are dedicated to the
establishment of standards, data
telecommunications in North America rely
primarily on those published by the following:
STANDARD CREATION
COMMITEES
1. International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
The ISO is a multinational body whose
membership is drawn mainly rom the standards
creation committees of various governments
throughout the world.
STANDARD CREATION
COMMITEES
2. International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-
T)
This committee was devoted to the research
and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone
data systems in particular.
STANDARD CREATION
COMMITEES
3. American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)
The ANSI is a completely private, nonprofit
corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal
government. However, all ANSI activities are
undertaken with the welfare of the United States
and all its Citizens occupying primary
importance.
STANDARD CREATION
COMMITEES
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
This is the largest professional engineering
society in the world. International in scope, it
aims to advance theory, creativity, and product
quality in the fields of electrical engineering,
electronics, and radio as well in all related
branches of engineering.
STANDARD CREATION
COMMITEES
5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
This is a nonprofit organization devoted to
the promotion of electronics manufacturing
concerns.
INTERNET MODELS
Internet Model

 Thelayered protocol stack that dominates data

communications and networking is the five-
layer Internet model, sometimes called the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
Internet Layers

Application

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Functions of Layers
PHYSICAL LAYER

 The physical layer coordinates the functions

required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
 It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and
transmission media.
 It also defines the procedures and functions
that physical devices and interfaces have to
perform for transmission to occur.
 The physical layer is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node
to another to the next.
 The major duties of the physical layer are as
follows:
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and
media
the physical layer defines the characteristic of
the device and the transmission media. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
2. Representation of bits
the physical layer data of the stream of bits
(sequence of 0s and 1s) without any
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals. The physical layer defines
the type or representation (how 0s and 1s are
change to signals).
3. Data rate
the transmission rate, the number of bits sent
each second, is also defined by the physical
layer. The physical layer defines the duration of
bit, which is how long it last.
4. Synchronization of bits
the sender and the receiver not only must use
the same bit rate but also must be synchronized
at the bit level. The sender and the receiver
clocks must be synchronized.
Data Link Layer

 The data link layer transforms the physical

layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-
free to the upper layer (network layer).
 The data link layer is responsible for
transforming frames from one node to the
next.
 The major duties of the data link layer are as
follows:
1. Framing
the data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from a network layer into manageable
data units called frames.
2. Physical Addressing
if frames are not to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds
a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended
for a system outside the sender’s network, the
receiver address is the address of the connecting
device that connects the network to the next
one.
3. Flow control
if the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate produced in the
sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the
receiver.
4. Error control
the data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer ay assign mechanism to detect
and retransmit damage or lost frames. It also
uses a mechanism to prevent overwhelming the
receiver.
5. Access control
when two or more devises are connected to
the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has a
control over the at any given time.
Network Layer

 The network layer is responsible for the

source-to-destination delivery packet possibly
across a multiple networks.
 Whereas the data link layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two system on
the same network layer ensures that each
packet gets from its point of origin to its final
destination.
 The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of packets from the original source
to the final destination.
 The major duties of the network layer are as follows:
1. Logical addressing
the physical addressing implemented by the data link
layer handles the addressing problem locally. If the
packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and
destination systems. The network layer adds a header
to the packet coming from the upper layer that
includes the logical addresses of the sender and
receiver.
2. Routing
when independent networks or links are
connected to create an internetwork (network to
network) or large network, the connecting
devices (called routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination.
Transport Layer

 The transport layer is responsible for

process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.
 Whereas the network layer oversees host-to-
destination delivery of individual packets, it
does not recognize any relationship between
those packets.
Transport Layer

 Ittreats each one independently, as through

each piece belonged to a separate message,
whether or not it does.
 The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures
that the whole message arrives intact and in
order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the process-to-process level.
 The transport layer is responsible for the
delivery of a message from one process to
another.
 The major duties of the transport layer are as
follows:
1. Port addressing
computers always run several processes (running
programs) at the same time. For this reason, process-
to-process delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to the next but also fro specific process on
one computer to a specific process on the other.
The transport layer header must therefor include
a type of address called port address. The
network layer gets each packets to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire
message to the correct process on that computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly
a message is divided into transmittable
segment, each segment containing a sequence
number. These numbers enable the transport
layer to reassemble the message correctly upon
arrival at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in the
transmission.
3. Connection control
the transport layer can either be
connectionless or connection-oriented. A
connectionless transport layer treats each
segment as an independent packet and delivers
it to the transport layer at the destination
machine.
A connection-oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the
packets. After all the data are transferred, the
connection is terminated.
4. Flow control
flow control at this layer performed end to
end rather than across a single link.
5. Error control
error control at this layer is performed across
a single link. The sending transport layer makes
sure that the entire message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without error (damage,
loss or duplication).
Application Layer

 The application layer enable the user,

whether human sortware, to access the
network. It provides user interface and support
services such as electronic email, remote file
access and transfer, access to the World Wide
Web and so on.
 The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
 The major duties of application layer are as
follows:
1. Mail services
this application is the basis for email
forwarding and storage.
2. File transfer and access
the application allows a user to access files in
a remote host (to make changes or read data),
retrieves files from a remote computer for use in
the local computer, and to manage or control
files in a remote computer locally.
3. Remote log-in
a user can log into a remote computer and
access the resources of that computer.
4. Accessing the World Wide Web
OSI Model
OSI Model

 Another model, the Open system

Interconnection, or OSI, model was
designed by international Organization
Standardization (ISO).
 It is a seven-layer model.
 OSI defines two extra layers: the session layer
and presentation layers.
 The session layer is the network dialog
controller. It was designed to establish,
maintain, and synchronize the interaction
between the communicating systems.
 The presentation layer was designed to
handle the syntax and semantics of the
information exchange between the two
systems. It was designed for data translation
encryption, decryption, and compression.
OSI Model
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical