MT17603 – APPLIED

HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

Syllabus

• Unit I – Fluid Power Principles and Hydraulic Pumps

• Unit II – Hydraulic Actuators and Valves

• Unit III – Hydraulic Systems

• Unit IV – Pneumatic Systems

• Unit V – Trouble Shooting and Applications

Fluid
• A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied
shear stress.
• The term "fluid" includes both the liquid and gas phases
Fluid Power
• Fluid power is the use of fluids under pressure to generate, control, and
transmit power.
• Fluid power is subdivided into hydraulics using a liquid such as mineral oil or
water, and pneumatics using a gas such as air or other gases.
• A fluid cylinder produces a force resulting in linear motion, whereas a fluid
motor produces torque resulting in rotary motion.
• Eg: Power Steers, Brakes, Pneumatic Door
History of Fluid Power
• Construction of Pyramid
• Water Wheel Power generation
• Air propelled Ships (Pirates of the Caribbean)
• Fluid power technology begins with discovery of Pascal’s Law.
• Pascal's law - basic principle in fluid mechanics states that the pressure
generated at one point in a confined liquid acts equally in all directions.”
Problem - 1:
Consider a hydraulic system having a cylinder 1 with a
piston area of 10cm2 and cylinder 2 with piston area of
100cm2. Assume a force of 50N is acting on piston 1. What is
the force created on piston 2.

Soln:
Pressure at piston 1 = F/A = 5N/cm2

Force at piston 2 = P x A = 5 x 100 = 500N.

Thus the piston 1 force is multiplied 10 times.

This advantage is used in fluid power system control.
Problem - 2:
The piston diameter of the small cylinder is 25mm and the large cylinder is 100mm. The
force needed at the large piston is 2000N.
a) Calculate the amount of force applied at the small piston.
b) How far the piston will move if the small piston moves 100mm.
Soln:
a). By pascals law, Pressure is equal, (i.e.) = PS = PL.
Therefore, [FS/AS] = [FL/AL] => FS = [FL/AL] x AS Hint: Area of Circle = πr2

ANS: FS = 125N

b) Volume of oil displaced by a small piston is equal to the Volume of the oil displacing by the
large piston.
Area (AS) x Distance (SS) = Area (AL) x Distance (SL)

ANS: SL = 6.25mm
Advantages of Fluid Power
• Fluid power drives – compact than mechanical drive, it eliminates the need for links like cams
and gears.
• Multiplication of small force to greater forces for performing work.
• Easily provide infinite and stepless variable speed control – which is difficult from other drives.
• Accuracy in controlling small or large forces with instant reversal possible.
• Constant force possible – regardless of special motion requirements – output moves a few mm
to several meters per minute.
• Medium – fluid, it is not subjected to any breakage of parts as in mechanical transmission.
• Parts of hydraulic system are lubricated with hydraulic liquid itself.
• Overloads – controlled by using relief valves. Air equipment reduces the damages on fire and
explosion hazards in industries.
• Simplicity and compactness – cost is relatively low for the power transmitted.
Applications of Fluid Power
• Agriculture, Automation
• Construction Equipment
• Defense
• Food and Beverages
• Machine Tools
• Medical
• Mining
• Oil Industry
• Plastic Industry
• Transportation
• Vehicle and other applications
Types of Hydraulic System

1. Fluid transport system

• The delivery of a fluid from one location to another to accomplish some useful purpose.
• Transport of water from reservoir using pipe lines
• Transport of oil in pipe b/w two countries.
2. Fluid power system
• Work is obtained by pressurized fluid acting directly on a fluid cylinder or a fluid motor.
• Oil used in equipment's to acquire desire movement.
• Compressed air is used in pneumatics for movements.
Classification of Fluid Power Systems

1. Based on Control System

• Open Loop System
• Closed Loop System
2. Based on the type of Control
• Fluid Logic Control
• Moving Part Logic
• Fluidics
• Electrical Control – Switches, Relays,
Timers, Solenoids
• Electronics Control – PLC, Microcontroller
Hydrostatic System
• It uses fluid pressure to transmit power.
• The system creates high pressure, and through a transmission line and a control
element, this pressure drives an actuator (linear or rotational).
• The pump used in hydrostatic systems is a positive displacement pump.
• An example of pure hydrostatics is the transfer of force in hydraulics.

Hydrodynamic System
• It uses fluid motion to transmit power .
• Hydrodynamics deals with the mechanics of moving fluid and uses flow theory.
• The pump used in hydrodynamic systems is a non-positive displacement pump.
• The relative spatial position of the prime mover (e.g., turbine) is fixed.
• An example of pure hydrodynamics is the conversion of flow energy in turbines in
hydroelectric power plants.
Components of Hydraulic System
Components of Pneumatic System
S. No Hydraulic System Pneumatic System
1 It employs a pressurized liquid as a fluid It employs a compressed gas, usually air, as a
fluid
2 An oil hydraulic system operates at pressures A pneumatic system usually operates at 5–10
up to 700 bar bar
3 Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system
4 The system slows down when leakage occurs Leakage does not affect the system much

5 Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy

6 Heavier in weight Lighter in weight

7 Pumps are used to provide pressurized Compressors are used to provide compressed
liquids gases
8 The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards

9 Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication

are needed
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS AND
PROPERITIES
Fluids: Liquids and Gases
• The Spacing of molecules in gases is much larger than that of liquids and for this reason gases
flow more readily than liquids.
• Liquids have definite mass and volume but no definite shape.
• Gas on other hand, have definite mass, but no definite volume and shape.
• Liquids are incompressible and so their volume does not change with pressure changes.
• The compressibility is measured by Bulk Modulus.

• The higher the bulk modulus, the less compressible the fluid or vice versa.

• The bulk modulus is defined as

β = -V(ΔP/ΔV)

β - Bulk modulus (N/m2)

V- Original Volume (m3)
ΔP- Change in pressure (N/m2)
ΔV- Change in volume (m3)

• The minus sign accounts for the fact that, as pressure increases, volume decreases.
Problem:
A 8 litre sample of oil is compressed in a cylinder until its pressure increases from
0.7MPa to 2.7MPa. If the bulk modulus equals 80MPa, find the change in the volume of oil.
Soln:
Initial volume = 8 litres = 0.008m3

Change in Pressure ΔP = 2.7 – 0.7 = 2MPa

 Change in Volume ΔV = -V

Ans: - 0.0002m3
Various Hydraulic Fluids
• Water (Inexpensive, fire resistance but corrosive, no lubricity)

• Petroleum Oils – Naphthenic, Aromatic, Paraffinic (Excellent lubricity, noncorrosive but not fire
resistance)

• Water Glycols – 35 to 55% water (good fire resistance, inexpensive, not good for high bearing
loads, poor corrosive resistance)

• Water oil Emulsion – 40% water (Inexpensive, good fire resistance, difficult to maintain)

• Phosphate Esters – Organic alcohols – High Thermal Stability (Excellent fire resistance, good
lubricity, Non-corrosive but not compatible with many plastics and elastomers)

• Silicones (Excellent thermal stability, non-corrosive, non-toxic, less volatile)

 Properties of Fluids
1. Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance offered to flow. 
• If the viscosity is higher than recommended, then
• The viscous oil may not be able to pass through the pipes,
• Working temperature increases
• Consumption of power will increase
• If the viscosity of the oil is lesser than recommended, then
• Internal and external leakage will increase
• Cannot lubricate properly
• Viscosity is expressed in Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU) – No. of seconds required for
60ml of oil to flow by its own gravity through a standard orifice under a standard falling
head at a given temperature.
2. Viscosity Index (VI)
• This value shows how temperature affects the viscosity of an oil.
• The viscosity of oil decreases with increase in temperature, and vice versa.
• Rate of change of viscosity with temperature is indicated on an arbitrary scale called
Viscosity Index (VI).
• Viscosity Index is computed by comparing the change of viscosity of the oil between the
temperature at 38℃ and 100℃, with the two-reference oil having a viscosity index of 0 and
100, respectively.
• The viscosities of unknown oil and two reference oils are the same at 100°C. The viscosities
of the oil are measured at 38°C.
Viscosity index VI = (L-U/L-H) * 100
L- SSU viscosity of reference oil at 38 ℃ with a viscosity index of 0.
H-SSU viscosity of reference oil at 38 ℃ with a viscosity index of 100.
U- SSU viscosity of oil at 38 ℃ whose viscosity index is to be calculated.
Problem : A sample oil is tested with a 0 VI oil and a 100 VI oil whose viscosity values at 38℃ are 400
and 150 SSU respectively. If the viscosity of the sample oil at 38℃ is 200 SSU, what is the VI
of the sample oil.

 
VI =

 
VI =

 
VI =
3. Oxidation Stability
• Important property of hydraulic oil.
• Oxidation caused by the chemical reaction b/w the oxygen of dissolved air and the oil
which creates impurities like sludge, insoluble gum and acidic products.
• Acidic products cause corrosion and insoluble products make the operation sluggish.
• Rise in system temperature accelerates oxidation.
• Below 55℃, oxidation is low, but above 65℃, for every 9 ℃ rise in temp. reduces the oil
life by 50%. Cooler is required for the temp. above 65 ℃.

4. Demulsibility
• Ability of hydraulic oil to separate rapidly from moisture and successfully resist
Emulsification is known as Demulsification.
• Emulsification will promote the destruction of lubricating value and sealant properties.
• High refined oils are basically water resistant by nature.
5. Lubricity
• Wear results in increased clearance leads to all sort of operational difficulties including
efficiency fall.
• Select the hydraulic oil which will lubricate the moving parts efficiently.

6. Pour Point
• The lowest temperature at which the oil can flow easily.
• It is of great importance in cold countries.

7. Flash Point and Fire Point

• The minimum temp. at which the fluid will catch fire and continue burning is called the fire
point.
• The temp. at which a liquid gives off vapour in enough quantity ignite momentarily or flash when
flame is applied.
• E.g. Cooking Oil, Petrol
8. Rust Prevention
• The moisture entering the hydraulic system with air causes the parts made ferrous
materials to rust.
• So “Inhibitors” are added to the oil to keep the moisture away from the surface.

9. Neutralisation Number
 
• The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a hydraulic fluid, referred as PH Value.
• High acidity causes the oxidation rate in oil to increase rapidly.
• A weighed amount of sample in titration solvent is titrated with a standard alcoholic KOH
to a definite end point.
• The indicator is alpha – naphthol benzein solution. (Orange to green or blue green).
• Neutralisation Number = x 5.61
A satisfactory hydraulic fluid must have:
• Chemical stability to prevent formation of sludge, gums, carbon and others causing
valves and pistons to stick and leak.
• Freedom from acidity – non corrosive to metals.
• Sufficient lubricating properties
• Satisfactory viscosity and viscosity index
• Pour point well below the minimum temperature expected in normal operation.
• Flash point as high as possible for safety and to prevent possible evaporation.
• Minimum toxicity.
Basic Principles of Hydraulic Flow
Laminar Flow & Turbulent Flow
• Laminar or streamline flow occurs when the fluid flow smoothly in even
layers or friction losses are at a minimum.
• When velocity reaches a critical value, the flow becomes turbulent.
• The fluid particles flow in a random or erratic pattern creating high
losses due to friction.
Reynold’s Number
 
• Re
• = Density of fluid (Kg/m3)
• V = Velocity of flow (m/s)
• D = Inside diameter of pipe (m)
• Re < 2000 – Flow is laminar
• = Dynamic / Absolute viscosity of fluid (Ns/m )
2
• Re > 4000 – Flow is turbulent
• = Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s)
• 4000 < Re > 2000 – Flow transition from
laminar to turbulent.
Problem 1:
Oil with a kinematic viscosity of 0.32 x 10 -4 m2/s is flowing through a 25mm pipe at the rate of 375 l/min. Is the
flow laminar or turbulent?
 
Velocity of flow, V = ; Q = Rate of flow; A = Area

  = ; 1 litre = 0.001 cubic meter

= 12.73 m/s

 
Reynolds number Re =
=

= 9945.3

Reynolds number is greater than 4000, therefore the flow is turbulent

Darcy – Weisbach Equation
 
• Energy loss due to friction in a hydraulic system results in a loss of potential energy.
• This leads to pressure drop / head loss which is derived using Darcy – Weisbach Equation.

• Head loss; f – Friction factor (dimension less); L – Length of pipe (m); D – Inner diameter of pipe (m)

• V – Velocity of flow (m/s); g – acceleration due to gravity (m/s 2)

• Pressure drop due to friction, , where – Weight density (N/m3)

• Friction factor ‘f’ for laminar flow can be found by equation, f = when Re < 2000.
• But in turbulent flow, friction factor depends on both Reynolds number and the roughness of pipe.
• L.F. Moody, showed the variation of friction factor ‘f’ with the governing parameters namely Reynolds number and
relative roughness Ɛ/D.
Problem 2:
Oil with a specific gravity of 0.85 and an absolute viscosity of 0.044 Ns/m 2 is flowing in a 25mm diameter pipe
120m long at the rate of 55 l/min. Determine the type of flow and calculate the pressure drop.

  ( 55 𝑥 10 −3 / 60 ) Friction factor, f = 64/Re;

Velocity of flow, V = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕 𝒎 / 𝒔
𝜋 2
𝑥 0.025
4 = 64/903
  f = 0.0709
Reynolds number, Re =
Re 903

** Specific gravity to density

Reynolds number is less than 2000. The flow is laminar
= Multiply specific gravity by 1000
 Head Loss, = 0.0709 x
*** To find weight density
= 60.66 m
= Specific gravity x 1000 x gravity
Pressure drop = ∆𝒑= 𝜸. 𝑯𝑳 = (0.85 x 1000 x 9.81) x 60.66
= 5.06 x 105 N/m2
= 5.06 Bar
Problem 3:
Oil with a specific gravity of 0.85 and a kinematic viscosity of 1.932 x 10 -4 m2/s is flowing through a 50mm
diameter commercial steel pipe at the rate of 3500 l/min. What is the pressure drop in 150m.
V = 29.71 m/s

Re = 7.689 x 103 which is greater than 2000, Flow is turbulent

Commercial steel pipe, so absolute roughness (Ɛ) = 0.046 mm,

Relative roughness, Ɛ / D = 0.00092
By moody diagram, f = 0.02
Head Loss, HL = 2699m
Pressure Loss = 225 Bar