Chapter 30

Sources of the Magnetic Field

Biot-Savart Law – Introduction
 Biot and Savart conducted experiments on
the force exerted by an electric current on a
nearby magnet
 They arrived at a mathematical expression
that gives the magnetic field at some point in
space due to a current
Biot-Savart Law – Set-Up

 The magnetic field is dB
at some point P Please
replace with
 The
 length element is fig. 30.1
ds
 The wire is carrying a
steady current of I
Biot-Savart Law –
Observations
 
 The vector dB is perpendicular to both
 ds and
to the unit vector r̂ directed
 from ds toward P
 The magnitude of dB is inversely proportional

to r2, where r is the distance from ds to P
Biot-Savart Law –
Observations, cont

 The magnitude of dB is proportional to the
current and to the magnitude ds of the length
element ds

 The magnitude of dB is proportional to sin 

where  is the angle between the vectors ds
and r̂
Biot-Savart Law – Equation
 The observations are summarized in the
mathematical equation called the Biot-Savart
law:
 μ I ds  ˆr
dB  o
4π r 2
 The magnetic field described by the law is the
field due to the current-carrying conductor
 Don’t confuse this field with a field external to the
conductor
Permeability of Free Space
 The constant o is called the permeability of
free space
 o = 4 x 10-7 T. m / A
Total Magnetic Field

 dB is the field created by the current in the
length segment ds
 To find the total field, sum up the 
contributions from all the current elements I ds
 μ I ds  ˆr
B o  2
4π r
 The integral is over the entire current distribution
Biot-Savart Law – Final Notes
 The law is also valid for a current consisting
of charges flowing through space

 ds represents the length of a small segment
of space in which the charges flow
 For example, this could apply to the electron
beam in a TV set
  
B Compared to E
 Distance
 The magnitude of the magnetic field varies as the
inverse square of the distance from the source
 The electric field due to a point charge also varies
as the inverse square of the distance from the
charge
 
B Compared to E , 2
 Direction
 The electric field created by a point charge is
radial in direction
 The magnetic field created by a current element
 is
perpendicular to both the length element ds and
the unit vector r̂
  
B Compared to E, 3
 Source
 An electric field is established by an isolated
electric charge
 The current element that produces a magnetic
field must be part of an extended current
distribution
 Therefore you must integrate over the entire current
distribution

B for a Long, Straight
Conductor
 The thin, straight wire is
carrying a constant
current

 ds ˆr   dx sin θ  kˆ
 Integrating over all the
current elements gives
μo I θ2
B
4πa θ1 cos θ dθ

μo I
  sin θ1  sin θ2 
4πa

B for a Long, Straight
Conductor, Special Case
 If the conductor is an
infinitely long, straight
wire, = /2 and
= -/2
 The field becomes

μo I
B
2πa

B for a Long, Straight
Conductor, Direction
 The magnetic field lines are
circles concentric with the
wire
 The field lines lie in planes
perpendicular to to wire
 The magnitude of the field is
constant on any circle of
radius a
 The right-hand rule for
determining the direction of
the field is shown

B for a Curved Wire Segment
 Find the field at point O
due to the wire
segment
 I and R are constants
μo I
B θ
4πR
  will be in radians

B for a Circular Loop of Wire
 Consider the previous result, with a full circle
  = 2
μo I μo I μo I
B θ 2π 
4πa 4πa 2a
 This is the field at the center of the loop

B for a Circular Current Loop
 The loop has a radius
of R and carries a
steady current of I
 Find the field at point P
μo I a 2
Bx 
2 a  x 
3
2 2 2
Comparison of Loops
 Consider the field at the center of the current
loop
 At this special point, x = 0
 Then,
μo I a 2 μo I
Bx  
 
3
2 a x2 2 2 2a

 This is exactly the same result as from the curved

wire
Magnetic Field Lines for a
Loop

 Figure (a) shows the magnetic field lines

surrounding a current loop
 Figure (b) shows the field lines in the iron filings
 Figure (c) compares the field lines to that of a bar
magnet
Magnetic Force Between Two
Parallel Conductors
 Two parallel wires each
carry a steady current

 The field B2 due to the
current in wire 2 exerts
a force on wire 1 of F1 =
I1ℓ B2

PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Magnetic Force Between Two
Parallel Conductors, cont.

 Substituting the equation for B2 gives
μo I1 I 2
F1  
2πa
 Parallel conductors carrying currents in the same
direction attract each other
 Parallel conductors carrying current in opposite
directions repel each other
Magnetic Force Between Two
Parallel Conductors, final
 The result is often expressed as the magnetic
force between the two wires, FB
 This can also be given as the force per unit
length:
FB μo I1 I 2

 2πa
Definition of the Ampere
 The force between two parallel wires can be
used to define the ampere
 When the magnitude of the force per unit
length between two long, parallel wires that
carry identical currents and are separated by
1 m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current in each wire is
defined to be 1 A
Definition of the Coulomb
 The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined
in terms of the ampere
 When a conductor carries a steady current of
1 A, the quantity of charge that flows through
a cross section of the conductor in 1 s is 1 C
Andre-Marie Ampère
 1775 – 1836
 French physicist
 Created with the
discovery of
electromagnetism
 The relationship between
electric current and
magnetic fields
 Also worked in
mathematics
Magnetic Field of a Wire
 A compass can be used
to detect the magnetic
field
 When there is no
current in the wire, there
is no field due to the
current
 The compass needles
all point toward the
Earth’s north pole
 Due to the Earth’s
magnetic field
Magnetic Field of a Wire, 2
 Here the wire carries a
strong current
 The compass needles
deflect in a direction
tangent to the circle
 This shows the direction
of the magnetic field
produced by the wire
 Use the active figure to
vary the current
PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Magnetic Field of a Wire, 3
 The circular magnetic
field around the wire is
shown by the iron
filings
Ampere’s Law
 
 The product of B  ds can be evaluated for
small length elements ds on the circular path
defined by the compass needles for the long
straight wire
 Ampere’s law states that the line integral of
 
B  ds around any closed path equals oI
where I is the total steady current passing
through any
 surface bounded by the closed
path:  B  ds  μo I
Ampere’s Law, cont.
 Ampere’s law describes the creation of
magnetic fields by all continuous current
configurations
 Most useful for this course if the current
configuration has a high degree of symmetry
 Put the thumb of your right hand in the
direction of the current through the amperian
loop and your fingers curl in the direction you
should integrate around the loop
Field Due to a Long Straight
Wire – From Ampere’s Law
 Want to calculate the
magnetic field at a
distance r from the
center of a wire
carrying a steady
current I
 The current is uniformly
distributed through the
cross section of the
wire
Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
– Results From Ampere’s Law
 Outside of the wire, r > R
  μo I
 B  ds  B( 2πr )  μo I  B  2πr
 Inside the wire, we need I’, the current inside
the amperian circle
  r2
 B  ds  B( 2πr )  μo I '  I '  R 2 I
 μo I 
B 2 
r
 2πR 
Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
– Results Summary
 The field is proportional
to r inside the wire
 The field varies as 1/r
outside the wire
 Both equations are
equal at r = R
Magnetic Field of a Toroid
 Find the field at a point
at distance r from the
center of the toroid
 The toroid has N turns
of wire
 
 B  ds  B( 2πr )  μoN I
μo N I
B
2πr
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
 A solenoid is a long
wire wound in the form
of a helix
 A reasonably uniform
magnetic field can be
produced in the space
surrounded by the turns
of the wire
 The interior of the
solenoid
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid,
Description
 The field lines in the interior are
 nearly parallel to each other
 uniformly distributed
 close together
 This indicates the field is strong and almost
uniform
Magnetic Field of a Tightly
Wound Solenoid
 The field distribution is
similar to that of a bar
magnet
 As the length of the
solenoid increases
 the interior field becomes
more uniform
 the exterior field
becomes weaker
Ideal Solenoid –
Characteristics
 An ideal solenoid is
approached when:
 the turns are closely
spaced
 the length is much
greater than the radius of
the turns
Ampere’s Law Applied to a
Solenoid
 Ampere’s law can be used to find the interior
magnetic field of the solenoid
 Consider a rectangle with side ℓ parallel to
the interior field and side w perpendicular to
the field
 This is loop 2 in the diagram
 The side of length ℓ inside the solenoid
contributes to the field
 This is side 1 in the diagram
Ampere’s Law Applied to a
Solenoid, cont.
 Applying Ampere’s Law gives
   
 B  ds  
path 1
B  ds  B 
path 1
ds  B

 The total current through the rectangular path

equals the current through each turn
multiplied by the number of turns
 
 B  ds  B  oNI
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid,
final
 Solving Ampere’s law for the magnetic field is
N
B  μo I  μo n I

 n = N / ℓ is the number of turns per unit length
 This is valid only at points near the center of
a very long solenoid
Magnetic Flux
 The magnetic flux
associated with a
magnetic field is
defined in a way similar
to electric flux
 Consider an area
element dA on an
arbitrarily shaped
surface
Magnetic Flux, cont.

 The
 magnetic field in this element is B
 dA is a vector that is perpendicular to the surface

 dA has a magnitude equal to the area dA
 The magnetic flux B is
 
 B   B  dA
 The unit of magnetic flux is T.m2 = Wb
 Wb is a weber
Magnetic Flux Through a
Plane, 1
 A special case is when
a plane of area A
makes an angle  with

dA
 The magnetic flux is B
= BA cos 
 In this case, the field is
parallel to the plane
and  = 0

PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Magnetic Flux Through A
Plane, 2
 The magnetic flux is B =
BA cos 
 In this case, the field is
perpendicular to the plane
and
 = BA
 This will be the maximum
value of the flux
 Use the active figure to
investigate different angles
PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Gauss’ Law in Magnetism
 Magnetic fields do not begin or end at any
point
 The number of lines entering a surface equals the
number of lines leaving the surface
 Gauss’ law in magnetism says the
magnetic flux through any closed surface is
always zero:
 
 B  dA  0
Magnetic Moments
 In general, any current loop has a magnetic
field and thus has a magnetic dipole moment
 This includes atomic-level current loops
described in some models of the atom
 This will help explain why some materials
exhibit strong magnetic properties
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom
 The electrons move in
circular orbits
 The orbiting electron
constitutes a tiny current
loop
 The magnetic moment of
the electron is associated
with
 this orbital motion
 L is the angular momentum

  is magnetic moment
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom, 2
 This model assumes the electron moves
 with constant speed v
 in a circular orbit of radius r
 travels a distance 2r in a time interval T
 The current associated with this orbiting
electron is
e ev
I 
T 2πr
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom, 3
1
 The magnetic moment is μ  I A  evr
2
 The magnetic moment can also be expressed
in terms of the angular momentum
 e 
μ L
 2me 
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom, final
 The magnetic moment of the electron is
proportional to
 its orbital angular momentum

 The vectors L and  point in opposite directions

 Because the electron is negatively charged

 Quantum physics indicates that angular
momentum is quantized
Magnetic Moments of Multiple
Electrons
 In most substances, the magnetic moment of
one electron is canceled by that of another
electron orbiting in the same direction
 The net result is that the magnetic effect
produced by the orbital motion of the
electrons is either zero or very small
Electron Spin
 Electrons (and other particles) have an
intrinsic property called spin that also
contributes to their magnetic moment
 The electron is not physically spinning
 It has an intrinsic angular momentum as if it were
spinning
 Spin angular momentum is actually a relativistic
effect
Electron Spin, cont.
 The classical model of
electron spin is the
electron spinning on its
axis
 The magnitude of the
spin angular
momentum is
3
S 
2
  is Planck’s constant
Electron Spin and Magnetic
Moment
 The magnetic moment characteristically
associated with the spin of an electron has
the value
e
μspin 
2me
 This combination of constants is called the
Bohr magneton B = 9.27 x 10-24 J/T
Electron Magnetic Moment,
final
 The total magnetic moment
of an atom is the vector sum
of the orbital and spin
magnetic moments
 Some examples are given
in the table at right
 The magnetic moment of a
proton or neutron is much
smaller than that of an
electron and can usually be
neglected
Ferromagnetism
 Some substances exhibit strong magnetic effects
called ferromagnetism
 Some examples of ferromagnetic materials are:
 iron
 cobalt
 nickel
 gadolinium
 dysprosium
 They contain permanent atomic magnetic moments
that tend to align parallel to each other even in a
weak external magnetic field
Domains
 All ferromagnetic materials are made up of
microscopic regions called domains
 The domain is an area within which all magnetic
moments are aligned
 The boundaries between various domains
having different orientations are called
domain walls
Domains, Unmagnetized
Material
 The magnetic
moments in the
domains are
randomly aligned
 The net magnetic
moment is zero
Domains, External Field
Applied
 A sample is placed in
an external magnetic
field
 The size of the
domains with magnetic
moments aligned with
the field grows
 The sample is
magnetized
Domains, External Field
Applied, cont.
 The material is placed
in a stronger field
 The domains not
aligned with the field
become very small
 When the external field
is removed, the
material may retain a
net magnetization in
the direction of the
original field
Curie Temperature
 The Curie temperature is the critical temperature
above which a ferromagnetic material loses its
residual magnetism
 The material will become paramagnetic
 Above the Curie temperature, the thermal agitation
is great enough to cause a random orientation of the
moments
Table of Some Curie
Temperatures
Paramagnetism
 Paramagnetic substances have small but
positive magnetism
 It results from the presence of atoms that
have permanent magnetic moments
 These moments interact weakly with each other
 When placed in an external magnetic field, its
atomic moments tend to line up with the field
 The alignment process competes with thermal
motion which randomizes the moment
orientations
Diamagnetism
 When an external magnetic field is applied to
a diamagnetic substance, a weak magnetic
moment is induced in the direction opposite
the applied field
 Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled
by a magnet
 Weak, so only present when ferromagnetism or
paramagnetism do not exist
Meissner Effect
 Certain types of
superconductors also
exhibit perfect
diamagnetism in the
superconducting state
 This is called the Meissner
effect
 If a permanent magnet is
brought near a
superconductor, the two
objects repel each other
Earth’s Magnetic Field
 The Earth’s magnetic field
resembles that achieved by
burying a huge bar magnet
deep in the Earth’s interior
 The Earth’s south magnetic
pole is located near the
north geographic pole
 The Earth’s north magnetic
pole is located near the
south geographic pole
Vertical Movement of a
Compass
 If a compass is free to rotate vertically as well
as horizontally, it points to the Earth’s surface
 The farther north the device is moved, the
farther from horizontal the compass needle
would be
 The compass needle would be horizontal at the
equator
 The compass needle would point straight down at
the magnetic pole
More About the Earth’s
Magnetic Poles
 The compass needle with point straight downward
found at a point just north of Hudson Bay in Canada
 This is considered to be the location of the south magnetic
pole
 The exact location varies slowly with time
 The magnetic and geographic poles are not in the
same exact location
 The difference between true north, at the geographic north
pole, and magnetic north is called the magnetic declination
 The amount of declination varies by location on the Earth’s
surface
Earth’s Magnetic Declination
Source of the Earth’s Magnetic
Field
 There cannot be large masses of permanently
magnetized materials since the high
temperatures of the core prevent materials
from retaining permanent magnetization
 The most likely source of the Earth’s magnetic
field is believed to be convection currents in
the liquid part of the core
 There is also evidence that the planet’s
magnetic field is related to its rate of rotation
Reversals of the Earth’s
Magnetic Field
 The direction of the Earth’s magnetic field
reverses every few million years
 Evidence of these reversals are found in basalts
resulting from volcanic activity
 The rocks provide a timeline for the periodic
reversals of the field
 The rocks are dated by other means to determine the
timeline