Chapter 3
Underlying
Technology
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1
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OBJECTIVES:
To briefly discuss the technology of dominant wired LANs,
Ethernet, including traditional, fast, gigabit, and ten-gigabit
Ethernet.
To briefly discuss the technology of wireless WANs, including
IEEE 802.11 LANs, and Bluetooth.
To briefly discuss the technology of point-to-point WANs
including 56K modems, DSL, cable modem, T-lines, and
SONET.
To briefly discuss the technology of switched WANs including
X.25, Frame Relay, and ATM.
To discuss the need and use of connecting devices such as
repeaters (hubs), bridges (two-layer switches), and routers
(three-layer switches).
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Chapter 3.1 Wired Local Area Network
Outline
3.2 Wireless LANs
3.3 Point-to-Point WANs
3.4 Switched WANs
3.5 Connecting Devices
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3-1 WIRED LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is
designed for a limited geographic area such as a building
or a campus. Although a LAN can be used as an isolated
network to connect computers in an organization for the
sole purpose of sharing resources, most LANs today are
also linked to a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet.
The LAN market has seen several technologies such as
Ethernet, token ring, token bus, FDDI, and ATM LAN,
but Ethernet is by far the dominant technology.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
IEEE Standards
Frame Format
Addressing
Ethernet Evolution
Standard Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet
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Figure 3.1 IEEE standard for LANs
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Figure 3.2 Ethernet Frame
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Figure 3.3 Maximum and minimum lengths
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Note
Minimum length: 64 bytes (512 bits)
Maximum length: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)
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Figure 3.4 Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation
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Figure 3.5 Unicast and multicast addresses
unicast: 0 multicast: 1
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Note
The broadcast destination address is a
special case of the multicast address
in which all bits are 1s.
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Note
The least significant bit of the first byte
defines the type of address.
If the bit is 0, the address is unicast;
otherwise, it is multicast.
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Example 3.1
Define the type of the following destination addresses:
a. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
b. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
Solution
To find the type of the address, we need to look at the second
hexadecimal digit from the left. If it is even, the address is unicast. If it is
odd, the address is multicast. If all digits are F’s, the address is
broadcast. Therefore, we have the following:
a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010 (even).
b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111 (odd).
c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are F’s.
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Example 3.2
Show how the address 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE is sent out on line.
Solution
The address is sent left-to-right, byte by byte; for each byte, it is
sent right-to-left, bit by bit, as shown below:
← 11100010 00000100 11011000 01110100 00010000 01110111
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Figure 3.6 Ethernet evolution through four generations
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3-2 WIRELESS LANS
Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing
technologies. The demand for connecting devices
without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.
Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in
office buildings, and in many public areas. In this
section, we concentrate on two wireless technologies
for LANs: IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, sometimes
called wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology
for small wireless LANs.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
IEEE 802.1
MAC Sublayer
Addressing Mechanism
Bluetooth
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Figure 3.13 Basic service sets (BSSs)
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Figure 3.14 Extended service sets (ESSs)
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Figure 3.17 Frame format
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Figure 3.18 Control frames
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3-3 POINT-TO-POINT WANS
A second type of network we encounter in the Internet
is the point-to-point wide area network. A point-to-
point WAN connects two remote devices using a line
available from a public network such as a telephone
network. We discuss traditional modem technology,
DSL line, cable modem, T-lines, and SONET.
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Figure 3.26 56K modem
Downloading,
Uploading, no quantization noise
quantization noise
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Note
ADSL is an asymmetric communication
technology designed for residential
users; it is not suitable for businesses.
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3-4 SWITCHED WANS
The backbone networks in the Internet can be
switched WANs. A switched WAN is a wide area
network that covers a large area (a state or a country)
and provides access at several points to the users.
Inside the network, there is a mesh of point-to-point
networks that connects switches. The switches,
multiple port connectors, allow the connection of
several inputs and outputs.
Switched WAN technology differs from LAN
technology in many ways.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
X.25
Frame Relay
ATM
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Note
A cell network uses the cell as the basic
unit of data exchange.
A cell is defined as a small, fixed-size
block of information.
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Figure 3.32 ATM multiplexing
A3 A2 A1
B1 C3 B2 A3 C2 B1 A2 C1 A1
B2
C3 C2 C1
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Figure 3.33 Architecture of an ATM network
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Figure 3.34 Virtual circuit
This virtual connection is uniquely
defined using the (VPI, VCI) pair:
(14 , 21)
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Note
A virtual connection is defined by a pair
of numbers: the VPI and the VCI.
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3-5 CONNECTING DEVICES
LANs or WANs do not normally operate in isolation.
They are connected to one another or to the Internet.
To connect LANs and WANs together we use
connecting devices. Connecting devices can operate in
different layers of the Internet model. We discuss three
kinds of connecting devices: repeaters (or hubs),
bridges (or two-layer switches), and routers (or three-
layer switches).
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Topics Discussed in the Section
Repeaters
Bridges
Routers
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Figure 3.40 Connecting devices
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Figure 3.41 Repeater or hub
Sent
Discarded Discarded
Maintained Discarded
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Note
A repeater forwards every bit; it has no
filtering capability.
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Note
A bridge has a table used in filtering
decisions.
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Note
A bridge does not change the physical
(MAC) addresses in a frame.
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Figure 3.42 Bridge
Bridge table
Address Port
71:2B:13:45:61:41 1
71:2B:13:45:61:42 2
64:2B:13:45:61:12 3
64:2B:13:45:61:13 4
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Figure 3.43 Learning bridge
Gradual building of Table
Address Port
a. Original
Address Port
Address Port 71:2B:13:45:61:41 1
Address Port
71:2B:13:45:61:41 1 64:2B:13:45:61:13 4
71:2B:13:45:61:41 1
64:2B:13:45:61:13 4 71:2B:13:45:61:42 2
64:2B:13:45:61:13 4
71:2B:13:45:61:42 2 64:2B:13:45:61:12 3
c. After D sends a frame to B d. After B sends a frame to A e. After C sends a frame to D
M M M
M
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Note
A router is a three-layer (physical, data
link, and network) device.
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Note
A repeater or a bridge connects
segments of a LAN.
A router connects independent LANs or
WANs to create an internetwork
(internet).
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Figure 3.44 Routing example
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Note
A router changes the physical
addresses in a packet.
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