Manuel S.

Enverga University Foundation, Lucena City College of Engineering

An Autonomous University

CAPACITOR
Electrical Circuits 1

Engr. Mark Nel A. Inojosa, RME

College of Engineering
The Basic Capacitor
Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive components. In its most
basic form, it is composed of two conductive plates separated by an
insulating dielectric.
The ability to store charge is the definition of capacitance.

Conductors Dielectric
 The Basic Capacitor
VV SS D ie le c t ric
The charging process… ++ 
+ ++ 
Le a d s ++ + + +
+ ++  P la t e s
Charging ++ 
++ + +
 +
Initially uncharged   + +   
+ 
Fully charged  ++ + + 
+ +  E le c t r o n s
Source removed + + 
+ 
+ ++ +  B 
 AA A + BB
   +    

A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.

Capacitance
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage

Q
C
V
Rearranging, the amount of charge on a capacitor is
determined by the size of the capacitor (C) and the voltage
(V).

Q  CV

If a 22 mF capacitor is connected to a 10 V
source, the charge is 220 mC
Capacitance
An analogy:

Imagine you store rubber bands in a bottle that is

nearly full.

You could store more rubber bands (like charge

or Q) in a bigger bottle (capacitance or C) or if
you push them in more (voltage or V). Thus,

Q  CV
Capacitance
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established
by the opposite charges on the two plates. The energy of a charged
capacitor is given by the equation

1
W CV 2
2
where

W = the energy in joules

C = the capacitance in farads
V = the voltage in volts
Capacitor types
Mica
Mica capacitors are small with high working voltage. The working
voltage is the voltage limit that cannot be exceeded.

F o il
M ic a
F o il
M ic a
F o il
M ic a
F o il
Capacitor types
Ceramic disk

Ceramic disks are small nonpolarized capacitors They have relatively high
capacitance due to high er.

L e a d w ire s o ld e re d
t o s ilv e r e le c t ro d e

S o ld e r

D ip p e d p h e n o lic c o a t in g
C e r a m ic
d ie le c t ric S ilv e r e le c t r o d e s d e p o s it e d o n
t o p a n d b o t t o m o f c e ra m ic d is k
Capacitor types
Plastic Film
Plastic film capacitors are small and nonpolarized. They have relatively
high capacitance due to larger plate area.

H ig h - p u r it y
f o il e le c t ro d e s

P la s t ic f ilm
d ie le c t ric

O u t e r w ra p o f
p o ly e s t e r f ilm
C a p a c it o r s e c t io n
( a lt e rn a t e s t rip s o f
f ilm d ie le c t r ic a n d
L e a d w ir e f o il e le c t ro d e s )
S o ld e r c o a t e d e n d
Capacitor types
Electrolytic (two types)
Electrolytic capacitors have very high capacitance but they are not as
precise as other types and tend to have more leakage current.
Electrolytic types are polarized.

_
Al electrolytic

Ta electrolytic

Symbol for any electrolytic capacitor

Capacitor types
Variable
Variable capacitors typically have small capacitance values and are usually
adjusted manually.
A solid-state device that is used as a variable capacitor is the varactor
diode; it is adjusted with an electrical signal.
Capacitor labeling
Capacitors use several labeling methods. Small capacitors values are
frequently stamped on them such as .001 or .01, which have implied units
of microfarads.

Electrolytic capacitors have larger values, so are read as

47VTTMFVTT
mF. The unit is usually stamped as mF, but some older ones may

+ ++ +
be shown as MF or MMF).

. 022
Capacitor labeling
A label such as 103 or 104 is read as 10x103 (10,000 pF) or
10x104 (100,000 pF) respectively. (Third digit is the multiplier.)

When values are marked as 330 or 6800, the units are picofarads.

222 2 20 0

What is the value of each

capacitor? Both are 2200 pF.
Series capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is
smaller than the smallest one. The general equation for capacitors in
series is

1
CT 
1 1 1 1
   ... 
C1 C2 C3 CT
The total capacitance of two capacitors is
1
CT 
1 1

C1 C2
…or you can use the product-over-sum rule
Series capacitors

If a 0.001 mF capacitor is connected in series

with an 800 pF capacitor, the total capacitance
is
444 pF

C 1 C 2

0 .0 0 1 µ F 800 pF
Parallel capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the
sum of the individual capacitors. The general equation for capacitors
in parallel is

CT  C1  C2  C3  ...Cn

If a 0.001 mF capacitor is connected

in parallel with an 800 pF capacitor, C 1 C 2
the total capacitance is
0 .0 0 1 µ F 800 pF
1800 pF
 V f in a l

The RC time constant

When a capacitor is charged through a
series resistor and dc source, the
charging curve is exponential. 0 t
( a ) C a p a c it o r c h a rg in g v o lt a g e

R I in it ia l

0 t
( b ) C h a rg in g c u r re n t
 V in it ia l
The RC time constant
When a capacitor is discharged through a
resistor, the discharge curve is also an
exponential. (Note that the current is t
0
negative.) ( a ) C a p a c it o r d is c h a r g in g v o lt a g e

 I in it ia l
R

0 t

( b ) D is c h a rg in g c u rre n t
 The RC time constant
VS
The same shape curves are seen if a
square wave is used for the source.

What is the shape of the VC

current curve?
R

C VR
V S

The current has the same shape as

VR.
 Universal exponential curves
Specific values for current 100% 99%
98%
and voltage can be read 95%
from a universal curve. For 86%
80%
an RC circuit, the time Rising exponential

Percent of final value

constant is
63%
60%

40%
37%
τ  RC Falling exponential
20%
14%
5%
2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Number of time constants
 Universal exponential curves
The universal curves can be applied to general formulas for the voltage (or
current) curves for RC circuits. The general voltage formula is

v =VF + (Vi - VF)e-t/RC

VF = final value of voltage

Vi = initial value of voltage
v = instantaneous value of voltage
The final capacitor voltage is greater than the initial voltage when the
capacitor is charging, or less that the initial voltage when it is discharging.
Capacitive reactance
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to ac by a capacitor.
The equation for capacitive reactance is

1
XC 
2πfC

The reactance of a 0.047 mF capacitor when a frequency of 15

kHz is applied is 226 W
Capacitive phase shift

When a sine wave is

applied to a capacitor, V C
there is a phase shift 0
between voltage and
o
current such that current 90
always leads the voltage
by 90o.

I
0
 Power in a capacitor
Energy is stored by the capacitor during a portion of the ac cycle and
returned to the source during another portion of the cycle.

Voltage and current are always 90o out of phase. For this reason, no
true power is dissipated by a capacitor, because stored energy is returned to
the circuit.
The rate at which a capacitor stores or returns energy is called reactive
power. The unit for reactive power is the VAR (volt-ampere reactive).
Power supply filtering
There are many applications for capacitors. One is in filters, such as
the power supply filter shown here.

Rectifier
C Load
60 Hz ac
resistance

The filter smoothes the

pulsating dc from the rectifier.
 Selected Key Terms
Capacitor An electrical device consisting of two conductive plates
separated by an insulating material and possessing the property
of capacitance.

Dielectric The insulating material between the conductive plates of a

capacitor.

Farad The unit of capacitance.

RC time constant
A fixed time interval set by the R and C values, that determine
the time response of a series RC circuit. It equals the product of
the resistance and the capacitance.
 Selected Key Terms
Capacitive The opposition of a capacitor to sinusoidal current. The unit is
reactance the ohm.

Instantaneous
power (p) The value of power in a circuit at a given instant of time.

True power (Ptrue) The power that is dissipated in a circuit usually in the form of
heat.
Reactive power The rate at which energy is alternately stored and returned to
(Pr ) the source by a capacitor. The unit is the VAR.

VAR
(volt-ampere The unit of reactive power.
reactive)
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation, Lucena City College of Engineering
An Autonomous University

RC CIRCUITS
Electrical Circuits 1

Engr. Mark Nel A. Inojosa, RME

College of Engineering
Sinusoidal response of RC circuits
When both resistance and capacitance are in a series circuit, the phase
angle between the applied voltage and total current is between 0 and
90, depending on the values of resistance and reactance.

VR VC

VR leads VS VC lags VS

R
C
VS

I leads VS
Impedance of series RC circuits
In a series RC circuit, the total impedance is the phasor sum of R and XC.

R is plotted along the positive x-axis.

XC is plotted along the negative y-axis.
X 
  tan 1  C  R R
 R  q q
Z is the diagonal
XC XC
Z Z

It is convenient to reposition the

phasors into the impedance
triangle.
Impedance of series RC circuits

Sketch the impedance triangle and show the values for R = 1.2
kW and XC = 960 W.

 1.2 k  +  0.96 k 
2 2
Z R = 1.2 kW
 1.33 k q
39o
0.96 k XC =
  tan 1
1.2 k Z = 1.33 kW 960 W
 39
Analysis of series RC circuits
Ohm’s law is applied to series RC circuits using Z, V, and I.

V V
V  IZ I Z
Z I
Because I is the same everywhere in a series circuit, you can obtain
the voltages across different components by multiplying the
impedance of that component by the current as shown in the
following example.
Analysis of series RC circuits

Assume the current in the previous example is 10 mA rms. Sketch the voltage
phasor diagram. The impedance triangle from the previous example is shown
for reference.

The voltage phasor diagram can be found from Ohm’s law. Multiply each
impedance phasor by 10 mA.

R = 1.2 kW VR = 12 V
q
x 10 mA q
39 o
= 39o
XC = VC =
Z = 1.33 kW 960 W VS = 13.3 V 9.6 V
Variation of phase angle with frequency
Phasor diagrams that have reactance phasors can only be drawn for a
single frequency because X is a function of frequency.

R
As frequency changes, the Increasing f
q3
impedance triangle for an RC q2
q1
circuit changes as illustrated here Z3
XC 3 f3
because XC decreases with
increasing f. This determines the Z2
frequency response of RC circuits.
XC 2 f2
Z1

XC1 f1
 Applications

For a given frequency, a series RC circuit can be used to produce a phase lag
by a specific amount between an input voltage and an output by taking the
output across the capacitor. This circuit is also a basic low-pass filter, a circuit
that passes low frequencies and rejects all others.

V
R
VR Vout
q
Vin C Vout
f
(phase lag)
Vin
f

Vout Vin (phase lag)

 Applications

Reversing the components in the previous circuit produces a circuit that is a

basic lead network. This circuit is also a basic high-pass filter, a circuit that
passes high frequencies and rejects all others. This filter passes high
frequencies down to a frequency called the cutoff frequency.

V
C Vout
q
(phase lead) Vin
Vin R Vout
Vout
q
VC Vin (phase lead)
Sinusoidal response of parallel RC circuits
For parallel circuits, it is useful to introduce two new quantities
(susceptance and admittance) and to review conductance.

1
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. G
R
1
Capacitive susceptance is the reciprocal BC 
of capacitive reactance. XC

1
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. Y 
Z
Sinusoidal response of parallel RC circuits
In a parallel RC circuit, the admittance phasor is the sum of the
conductance and capacitive susceptance phasors. The magnitude can be
expressed as
Y  G + BC 2 2

B 
From the diagram, the phase angle is   tan 1  C 
G 
BC

Y
VS G BC

q G
Sinusoidal response of parallel RC circuits
Some important points to notice are:
G is plotted along the positive x-axis.
BC is plotted along the positive y-axis.
B 
  tan 1  C 
G 
Y is the diagonal
BC
Y

VS G BC

q G
Sinusoidal response of parallel RC circuits

Draw the admittance phasor diagram for the circuit.

The magnitude of the conductance and susceptance are:
1 1
G   1.0 mS BC  2  10 kHz   0.01  F   0.628 mS
R 1.0 k
 1.0 mS +  0.628 mS  1.18 mS
2 2
Y  G 2 + BC 2 

BC = 0.628 mS

VS R C Y=
1.18 mS
f = 10 kHz 1.0 kW 0.01 mF

G = 1.0 mS
Analysis of parallel RC circuits
Ohm’s law is applied to parallel RC circuits using Y, V, and I.

I I
V I  VY Y 
Y V

Because V is the same across all components in a parallel circuit, you

can obtain the current in a given component by simply multiplying
the admittance of the component by the voltage as illustrated in the
following example.
Analysis of parallel RC circuits

If the voltage in the previous example is 10 V, sketch the current phasor

diagram. The admittance diagram from the previous example is shown for
reference.

The current phasor diagram can be found from Ohm’s law.

Multiply each admittance phasor by 10 V.

BC = 0.628 mS IC = 6.28 mA
x 10 V
Y= = IS =
1.18 mS 11.8 mA

G = 1.0 mS IR = 10 mA
Phase angle of parallel RC circuits
Notice that the formula for capacitive susceptance is the reciprocal of
capacitive reactance. Thus BC and IC are directly proportional to f:

BC  2 fC

As frequency increases, BC and IC IC

IS
must also increase, so the angle
between IR and IS must increase.

q
IR
Equivalent series and parallel RC circuits
For every parallel RC circuit there is an equivalent series RC circuit at a
given frequency.
The equivalent resistance and capacitive reactance are shown on
the impedance triangle:

Req = Z cos q
q

XC(eq) = Z sin q
Z
Series-Parallel RC circuits
Series-parallel RC circuits are combinations of both series and
parallel elements. These circuits can be solved by methods from
series and parallel circuits. Z1
Z2
For example, the
components in the R1 C1
green box are in R2 C2
series: Z1  R12  X C21

The components in The total impedance can be found by

the yellow box are converting the parallel components to
R2 X C 2
in parallel: Z 2  an equivalent series combination, then
R22  X C2 2 adding the result to R1 and XC1 to get the
total reactance.
The power triangle

Recall that in a series RC circuit, you could multiply the impedance

phasors by the current to obtain the voltage phasors. The earlier
example is shown for review:

R = 1.2 kW VR = 12 V
q
x 10 mA q
39 o
= 39o
XC = VC =
Z = 1.33 kW 960 W VS = 13.3 V 9.6 V
The power triangle

Multiplying the voltage phasors by Irms gives the power triangle

(equivalent to multiplying the impedance phasors by I2). Apparent
power is the product of the magnitude of the current and magnitude
of the voltage and is plotted along the hypotenuse of the power
triangle. The rms current in the earlier example was 10 mA.
Show the power triangle.
VR = 12 V Ptrue = 120 mW
q x 10 mA q
39 o
= 39o
VC = Pr = 96
VS = 13.3 V 9.6 V Pa = 133 mVA mVAR
Power factor

The power factor is the relationship between the apparent power in

volt-amperes and true power in watts. Volt-amperes multiplied by
the power factor equals true power.
Power factor is defined mathematically as

PF = cos 

The power factor can vary from 0 for a purely reactive circuit to 1 for a
purely resistive circuit.
Apparent power

Apparent power consists of two components; a true power

component, that does the work, and a reactive power component,
that is simply power shuttled back and forth between source and
load.

Ptrue (W)
Some components such as
q
transformers, motors, and
generators are rated in VA rather
than watts. Pr (VAR)
Pa (VA)
 Selected Key Terms
Impedance The total opposition to sinusoidal current expressed in ohms.

Phase angle The angle between the source voltage and the total current
in a reactive circuit.

Capacitive suceptance The ability of a capacitor to permit current; the reciprocal of

(BC) capacitive reactance. The unit is the siemens (S).

Admittance (Y) A measure of the ability of a reactive circuit to permit

current; the reciprocal of impedance. The unit is the siemens
(S).
 Selected Key Terms
Power factor The relationship between volt-amperes and true power or
watts. Volt-amperes multiplied by the power factor equals
true power.

Frequency response In electric circuits, the variation of the output voltage (or
current) over a specified range of frequencies.

Cutoff frequency The frequency at which the output voltage of a filter is 70.7%
of the maximum output voltage.
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation, Lucena City College of Engineering
An Autonomous University

INDUCTORS
Electrical Circuits 1

Engr. Mark Nel A. Inojosa, RME

College of Engineering
The Basic Inductor
When a length of wire is formed into a coil., it
becomes a basic inductor. When there is current in
the inductor, a three-dimensional magnetic field is
created.
A change in current
causes the magnetic
S N
field to change. This in
turn induces a voltage
across the inductor that
opposes the original
change in current.
 The Basic Inductor
One henry is the inductance of a coil when a current,
changing at a rate of one ampere per second, induces one
volt across the coil. Most coils are much smaller than 1 H.
The effect of inductance is greatly
magnified by adding turns and winding
them on a magnetic material. Large
inductors and transformers are wound
on a core to increase the inductance.

Magnetic core
Faraday’s law
Faraday’s law was introduced in Chapter 7 and repeated
here because of its importance to inductors.

The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly

proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field
with respect to the coil.
Practical inductors
In addition to inductance, actual inductors have
winding resistance (RW) due to the resistance of the
wire and winding capacitance (CW) between turns.
An equivalent circuit for a practical inductor
CW
including these effects is shown:
Notice that the winding resistance
is in series with the coil and the L
winding capacitance is in parallel RW
with both.
Types of inductors
There are a variety of inductors, depending on the
amount of inductance required and the application.
Some, with fine wires, are encapsulated and may
appear like a resistor.

Common symbols for inductors (coils) are

Air core Iron core Ferrite core Variable

 Practical inductors
Inductors come in a variety of sizes. A few
common ones are shown here.

E n c a p s u la t e d To rr o id c o il V a r ia b le
Series inductors
When inductors are connected in series, the total
inductance is the sum of the individual inductors.
The general equation for inductors in series is
LT  L1  L2  L3  ...Ln

If a 1.5 mH inductor is L L
1 2
connected in series with
an 680 mH inductor, the 1 .5 m H 6 8 0 H
total inductance is 2.18 mH
Parallel inductors
When inductors are connected in parallel, the total
inductance is smaller than the smallest one. The
general equation for inductors in parallel is
1
LT 
1 1 1 1
   ... 
L1 L2 L3 LT

The total inductance of two inductors is

1
LT 
1 1

L1 L2

…or you can use the product-over-sum rule.

Parallel inductors

If a 1.5 mH inductor is connected in

parallel with an 680 mH inductor,
the total inductance is 468 mH

L1 L2
1 .5 m H 6 8 0 H
 Vinitial
Inductors in dc circuits
When an inductor is connected
in series with a resistor and dc
source, the current change is 0 t
Inductor volta ge a fter switch closure
exponential.
Ifinal
R

0 t
Current a fter switch closure
Inductors in dc circuits
VS
The same shape curves are
seen if a square wave is
used for the source. Pulse
response is covered further VL
in Chapter 20.
R

L VR
V S
 Universal exponential curves
Specific values for 100%
98%
99%
95%
current and voltage 86%
80%
can be read from a Rising exponential

Percent of final value

universal curve. For 63%
60%
an RL circuit, the
time constant is
40%
37%
L Falling exponential
τ
R 20%
14%
5%
2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Number of time constants
 Universal exponential curves
The curves can give 100% 99%
specific information 95%
98%

about an RL circuit. 80%

86%

Percent of final value

63%
60%

In a series RL circuit,
when is VR > 2VL? 40%
37%

Read the rising

20%
exponential at the 14%

67% level. After 1.1 t 5%

2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Number of time constants
 Universal exponential curves
The universal curves can be applied to general formulas for
the current (or voltage) curves for RL circuits. The general
current formula is
i =IF + (Ii - IF)e- Rt/L
IF = final value of current
Ii = initial value of current
i = instantaneous value of current
The final current is greater than the initial current when
the inductive field is building, or less than the initial current
when the field is collapsing.
Inductive reactance

Inductive reactance is the opposition to

ac by an inductor. The equation for
inductive reactance is
X L  2πfL

The reactance of a 33 mH inductor when a

frequency of 550 kHz is applied is 114 W
Inductive phase shift

When a sine wave

is applied to an VL 0
inductor, there is a
90
phase shift between
voltage and current
such that voltage
always leads the I 0
current by 90o.
 Key Terms
Inductor An electrical device formed by a wire wound
around a core having the property of inductance;
also known as a coil.

Winding The loops or turns of wire in an inductor.

Induced Voltage produced as a result of a changing

voltage magnetic field.

Inductance The property of an inductor whereby a change in

current causes the inductor to produce a voltage
that opposes the change in current.
 Key Terms
Henry (H) The unit of inductance.

RL time A fixed time interval set by the L and R

constant values, that determines the time response of a
circuit. It equals the ratio of L/R.
Inductive The opposition of an inductor to sinusoidal
reactance current. The unit is the ohm.

Quality factor The ratio of reactive power to true power for an

inductor.
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation, Lucena City College of Engineering
An Autonomous University

RL CIRCUITS
Electrical Circuits 1

Engr. Mark Nel A. Inojosa, RME

College of Engineering
Sinusoidal response of RL circuits
When both resistance and inductance are in a series
circuit, the phase angle between the applied voltage and
total current is between 0 and 90, depending on the
values of resistance and reactance.
VR VL

VR lags VS VL lead s VS

R L
VS

I lags VS
Impedance of series RL circuits
In a series RL circuit, the total impedance is the phasor
sum of R and XL.
R is plotted along the positive x-axis.
XL is plotted along the positive y-axis.
X 
  tan 1  L 
 R 
Z Z
Z is the diagonal
XL XL
q
q
R R

It is convenient to reposition the

phasors into the impedance triangle.
Impedance of series RL circuits

Sketch the impedance triangle and show the

values for R = 1.2 kW and XL = 960 W.

 1.2 k  +  0.96 k 
2 2
Z
 1.33 k Z = 1.33 kW
0.96 k XL =
  tan 1
1.2 k q 39o 960 W
 39
R = 1.2 kW
Analysis of series RL circuits
Ohm’s law is applied to series RL circuits using
quantities of Z, V, and I.
V V
V  IZ I Z
Z I

Because I is the same everywhere in a series circuit,

you can obtain the voltage phasors by simply
multiplying the impedance phasors by the current.
Analysis of series RL circuits

Assume the current in the previous example is 10 mArms.

Sketch the voltage phasors. The impedance triangle from
the previous example is shown for reference.
The voltage phasors can be found from Ohm’s
law. Multiply each impedance phasor by 10 mA.

Z = 1.33 kW x 10 mA
= VS = 13.3 V VL =
XL =
9.6 V
q 39o 960 W q 39o

R = 1.2 kW VR = 12 V
Variation of phase angle with frequency
Phasor diagrams that have reactance phasors can only
be drawn for a single frequency because X is a
function of frequency.
Increasing f
As frequency changes,
the impedance triangle Z
X
3
L3

for an RL circuit changes

as illustrated here Z X 2 L2

because XL increases with Z 1

X L1
increasing f. This
q q 3
determines the frequency q 1
R
2

response of RL circuits.
 Phase shift
For a given frequency, a series RL circuit can be used to
produce a phase lead by a specific amount between an
input voltage and an output by taking the output across
the inductor. This circuit is also a basic high-pass filter, a
circuit that passes high frequencies and rejects all others.

R Vout
Vin
f Vout Vin
(phase lead)
Vin L Vout
f
q VR
 Phase shift
Reversing the components in the previous circuit
produces a circuit that is a basic lag network. This circuit
is also a basic low-pass filter, a circuit that passes low
frequencies and rejects all others.

L VL Vin
Vin
Vout
Vin R Vout
f
f (phase lag)

Vout
Sinusoidal response of parallel RL circuits
For parallel circuits, it is useful to review conductance,
susceptance and admittance, introduced in Chapter 10.

1
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. G
R

Inductive susceptance is the reciprocal 1

BL 
of inductive reactance. XL

1
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. Y 
Z
Sinusoidal response of parallel RL circuits
In a parallel RL circuit, the admittance phasor is the sum
of the conductance and inductive susceptance phasors.
The magnitude of the susceptance is Y  G 2 + BL 2
The magnitude of the phase angle is   tan 1 
BL 

 
G
G

VS G BL
BL Y
Sinusoidal response of parallel RL circuits
Some important points to notice are:
G is plotted along the positive x-axis.
BL is plotted along the negative y-axis.
B 
  tan 1  L 
G
Y is the diagonal
G

VS G BL
BL Y
Sinusoidal response of parallel RL circuits

Draw the admittance phasor diagram for the circuit.

The magnitude of the conductance and susceptance are:
1 1 1
G   1.0 mS B   0.629 mS
2  10 kHz   25.3 mH 
L
R 1.0 k

 1.0 mS +  0.629 mS  1.18 mS

2 2
Y  G 2 + BL 2 
G = 1.0 mS
VS R L
f = 10 kHz 1.0 kW 25.3 mH
BL = Y=
0.629 mS 1.18 mS
Analysis of parallel RL circuits
Ohm’s law is applied to parallel RL circuits using
quantities of Y, V, and I.
I I
Y V I  VY
V Y

Because V is the same across all components in a

parallel circuit, you can obtain the current in a given
component by simply multiplying the admittance of
the component by the voltage as illustrated in the
following example.
Analysis of parallel RL circuits

Assume the voltage in the previous example is 10 V.

Sketch the current phasors. The admittance diagram
from the previous example is shown for reference.
The current phasors can be found from Ohm’s law.
Multiply each admittance phasor by 10 V.
G = 1.0 mS IR = 10 mA
x 10 V
=

BL = Y= IL =
IS =
0.629 mS 1.18 mS 6.29 mA
11.8 mA
Phase angle of parallel RL circuits

Notice that the formula for inductive susceptance is

the reciprocal of inductive reactance. Thus BL and IL
1
are inversely proportional to f: BL 
2 fL
IR
As frequency increases, BL q
and IL decrease, so the angle
between IR and IS must
decrease as well. IL IS
The power triangle
Recall that in a series RC or RL circuit, you could
multiply the impedance phasors by the current to
obtain the voltage phasors. The earlier example from
this chapter is shown for review:

Z = 1.33 kW x 10 mA
= VS = 13.3 V VL =
XL =
39o 9.6 V
960 W 39o
R = 1.2 kW VR = 12 V
The power triangle
Multiplying the voltage phasors by Irms gives the power triangle
(equivalent to multiplying the impedance phasors by I2). Apparent
power is the product of the magnitude of the current and magnitude
of the voltage and is plotted along the hypotenuse of the power
triangle. The rms current in the earlier example was 10 mA.
Show the power triangle.

x 10 mA =

VS = 13.3 V Pa = 133 mVA Pr =

VL =
96 mVAR
9.6 V
39o 39o
VR = 12 V Ptrue = 120 mW
 Key Terms

Inductive The ability of an inductor to permit current;

susceptance (BL) the reciprocal of inductive reactance. The
unit is the siemens (S).
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation, Lucena City College of Engineering
An Autonomous University

RLC CIRCUITS
Electrical Circuits 1

Engr. Mark Nel A. Inojosa, RME

College of Engineering
Series RLC circuits
When a circuit contains an inductor and capacitor in
series, the reactance of each tend to cancel. The total
reactance is given by X tot  X L  X C
The total impedance is given by Z tot  R  X tot
2 2

1  X tot 
The phase angle is given by   tan  
 R 
R L C

VS
Variation of XL and XC with frequency
In a series RLC circuit, the circuit can be capacitive or inductive,
depending on the frequency.
XC>XL XL>XC

Reactance
At the frequency where XC=XL,
the circuit is at series resonance.
Below the resonant
frequency, the circuit is XC XL
predominantly capacitive.
XC=XL
Above the resonant
frequency, the circuit is
f
predominantly inductive. Series
resonance
 Impedance of series RLC circuits
What is the total impedance and phase angle of the series
RLC circuit if R= 1.0 kW, XL = 2.0 kW, and XC = 5.0 kW?
The total reactance is X tot  X L  X C  2.0 k  5.0 k  3.0 k

The total impedance is Z tot  R  X tot  1.0 k +3.0 k  3.16 kW

2 2 2 2

1  3.0 k 
The phase angle is   tan 1  
X tot
  tan    71.6
o
 R   1.0 k 

The circuit is capacitive, R L C

so I leads V by 71.6o.
VS 1.0 kW XL = XC =
2.0 kW 5.0 kW
Impedance of series RLC circuits
What is the magnitude of the impedance for the circuit?

X L  2 fL  2  100 kHz   330  H   207 

1 1
XC    796 
2 fC 2  100 kHz   2000 pF 
X tot  X L  X C  207   796   589 
R L C
 470     589   
2 2
Z=
VS
753 W 470 W 330 mH 2000 pF

f = 100 kHz
Impedance of series RLC circuits
Depending on the frequency, the circuit can appear to be
capacitive or inductive. The circuit in the Example-2 was
capacitive because XC>XL.
X

XL
XC

XL XC

f
Impedance of series RLC circuits
What is the total impedance for the circuit when the
frequency is increased to 400 Hz?
X L  2 fL  2  400 kHz   330  H   829 
1 1
XC    199 
2 fC 2  400 kHz   2000 pF 
X tot  X L  X C  829   199   630 
R L C
 470     630   
2 2
Z=
786 W 470 W 330 mH 2000 pF
VS f = 400 kHz
The circuit is
now inductive.
Impedance of series RLC circuits
By changing the frequency, the circuit in Example-3 is
now inductive because XL>XC
X

XL
XL

XC
XC
f
Voltages in a series RLC circuits
The voltages across the RLC components must add to
the source voltage in accordance with KVL. Because of
the opposite phase shift due to L and C, VL and VC
effectively subtract.

Notice that VC is out of VL

phase with VL. When
0
they are algebraically
added, the result is…. VC

This example is inductive.

Series resonance
At series resonance, XC and XL cancel. VC and VL also
cancel because the voltages are equal and opposite.
The circuit is purely resistive at resonance.

Algebraic sum
is zero.
 Series resonance
The formula for resonance can be found by setting
XC = XL. The result is
1
fr 
2 LC

What is the resonant frequency for the circuit?

1
fr  R L C
2 LC
1 470 W 330 mH 2000 pF

2  330 μH   2000 pF  VS
 196 kHz
Series resonance
Ideally, at resonance the sum of VL and VC is zero.

By KVL,
VS V=0 VR = VS

What is VR at R L C
resonance?
470 W 330 mH 2000 pF
5.0 Vrms
VS
5.0 Vrms
5.0 Vrms
Impedance of series RLC circuits

The general shape of the

impedance versus frequency X
for a series RLC circuit is
superimposed on the curves
for XL and XC. Notice that at XL Z
the resonant frequency, the
circuit is resistive, and Z = R.
XC
Z=R
f
Series
resonance
Series resonance
Summary of important concepts for series resonance:
• Capacitive and inductive reactances are equal.
• Total impedance is a minimum and is resistive.
• The current is maximum.
• The phase angle between VS and IS is zero.
• fr is given by f r  1
2 LC
Series resonant filters
An application of series resonant circuits is in filters. A
band-pass filter allows signals within a range of
frequencies to pass.
Circuit response:
Resonant circuit Vout
L C
Vin Vout

R
f
Series
resonance
Series resonant filters
By taking the output across the resonant circuit, a band-
stop (or notch) filter is produced.
Circuit response:
Vout
R Stopband
Vin Vout 1
0.707
Resonant L
circuit
C
f
f1 f r f2

BW
f2
Conductance, susceptance, and admittance
Recall that conductance, susceptance, and admittance
were defined in Chapter 10 as the reciprocals of
resistance, reactance and impedance.
1
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. G 
R
1
Susceptance is the reciprocal of reactance. B 
X

1
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. Y 
Z
Impedance of parallel RLC circuits
The admittance can be used to find the impedance.
Start by calculating the total susceptance: Btot  BL  BC

The admittance is given by Y  G 2  Btot

2

1
The impedance is the reciprocal of the admittance: Z tot 
Y
 Btot 
The phase angle is   tan 1  
 G 

VS R L C
 Impedance of parallel RLC circuits
What is the total impedance of the parallel RLC circuit
if R= 1.0 kW, XL = 2.0 kW, and XC = 5.0 kW?
First determine the conductance The total admittance is:
and total susceptance as follows: Ytot  G 2  Btot2

1 1
G   1.0 mS  1.0 mS 2
+ 0.3 mS 2
 1.13 mS
R 1.0 k
1 1 1 1
Z   881 W
BL    0.5 mS Y 1.13 mS
X L 2.0 k
1 1
BC    0.2 mS VS R XL = XC =
X C 5.0 k
1.0 kW 2.0 kW 5.0 kW
Btot  BL  BC  0.3 mS
Sinusoidal response of parallel RLC circuits
A typical current phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is
IC
The total current is given by:

I tot  I R2   I C  I L 
2

+90o IR The phase angle is given by:

 I CL 
-90o   tan  1

IL  IR 

What is Itot and q if IR = 10 mA, IC = 15 mA and IL = 5 mA?

I tot  10 mA 2 +  15 mA  5.0 mA   14.1 mA

2
  45 mA
Currents in a parallel RLC circuits
The currents in the RLC components must add to the
source current in accordance with KCL. Because of the
opposite phase shift due to L and C, IL and IC effectively
subtract.
IC
Notice that IC is out of
phase with IL. When 0

they are algebraically

IL
added, the result is….
Currents in a parallel RLC circuits
IC

Draw a diagram of the phasors if IR = 12 mA, 20 mA

IC = 22 mA and IL = 15 mA?
10 mA

• Set up a grid with a scale that will allow 0 mA IR

all of the data– say 2 mA/div.
• Plot the currents on the appropriate axes 10 mA

• Combine the reactive currents

20 mA
• Use the total reactive current and IR to
IL
find the total current. In this case, Itot = 16.6 mA
Parallel resonance
Ideally, at parallel resonance, IC and IL cancel because
the currents are equal and opposite. The circuit is
purely resistive at resonance.
The algebraic
sum is zero.
Notice that IC is out of IC
phase with IL. When
0
they are algebraically
added, the result is….
IL
Parallel resonance
The formula for the resonant frequency in both
parallel and series circuits is the same, namely
1
fr 
2 LC (ideal case)

What is the resonant frequency for the circuit?

1
fr 
2 LC
1 VS R L C

2  680 μH   15 nF  1.0 kW 680 mH 15 nF
 49.8 kHz
Parallel resonance
Summary of important concepts for parallel resonance:
• Capacitive and inductive susceptance are equal.
• Total impedance is a maximum (ideally infinite).
• The current is minimum.
• The phase angle between VS and IS is zero.
• fr is given by f r  1
2 LC
Parallel resonant filters
Parallel resonant circuits can also be used for band-pass
or band-stop filters. A basic band-pass filter is shown.
Circuit response:
R Vout
Passband
Vout 1.0
Vin
L C 0.707
Resonant
circuit

f
Parallel resonant f1 fr f2
band-pass filter
BW
Parallel resonant filters
For the band-stop filter, the resonant circuit and
resistance are reversed as shown here.
Circuit response:
C
Vout
Stopband
Vin L Vout 1

R 0.707
Resonant
circuit

Parallel resonant f
band-stop filter f1 fr f2

BW
Key ideas for resonant filters
•A band-pass filter allows frequencies between
two critical frequencies and rejects all others.
• A band-stop filter rejects frequencies between two
critical frequencies and passes all others.
• Band-pass and band-stop filters can be made from
both series and parallel resonant circuits.
•The bandwidth of a resonant filter is determined by
the Q and the resonant frequency.
•The output voltage at a critical frequency is 70.7%
of the maximum.
 Key Terms
Series A condition in a series RLC circuit in which
resonance the reactances ideally cancel and the
impedance is a minimum.

Resonant The frequency at which resonance occurs;

frequency (fr) also known as the center frequency.

Parallel A condition in a parallel RLC circuit in which

resonance the reactances ideally are equal and the
impedance is a maximum.

Tank circuit A parallel resonant circuit.

 Key Terms
Half-power The frequency at which the output power of a
frequency resonant circuit is 50% of the maximum value
(the output voltage is 70.7% of maximum);
another name for critical or cutoff frequency.

Decibel Ten times the logarithmic ratio of two powers.

Selectivity A measure of how effectively a resonant

circuit passes desired frequencies and rejects
all others. Generally, the narrower the
bandwidth, the greater the selectivity.
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation, Lucena City College of Engineering
An Autonomous University

ASSIGNMENT
Problem Solving & Research
To be posted in our NEO-LMS Class