Topic: Ecosystems

How are ecosystems at risk?

What is this unit about?

This unit looks at different types of
ecosystems.
It explains how their characteristics and
distribution can be linked to factors such as
climate and soils.
It also looks at how ecosystems may be
changed by human activity.
In this Unit you will learn about:
Factors that affect climate
The British, equatorial and
Mediterranean climates
The main features of ecosystems
The characteristics of tropical
rainforest and Mediterranean
ecosystems
The causes and effects of soil
erosion
 Why is this an important topic?

Learning about ecosystems will help you understand

our world and appreciate the different types vegetation
and wildlife found across the earth’s surface.
It will also help you understand why we need to use
the earth’s resources carefully so that we do not damage
or change the environment for future generations.

Learning about ecosystems will help you to:

Appreciate the world about you
Develop a concern for the environment
Learn about protecting wildlife and scenery develop
an interest in your surroundings.
 Activities

What is happening in photo A and What

problems may this cause?

What has happened in photo C?

Describe the vegetation and wildlife in

photos B and D. In what ways are they
different from where you live?
 What factors affect climate?
Can you remember the difference between
weather and climate shown on diagram A?
Weather : is the day to day condition of the
atmosphere. It includes temperature, precipitation
and wind.
The climate of a place is its average weather taken
over many years.
There are several types of climate found across the
world.
Each type has it own distinctive pattern of
temperature and rainfall.
Several factors affect climate.
Four of these factors are latitude, the distance from the sea,
prevailing winds and major relief features.
It is important to understand these factors before looking at
Britain’s climate and comparing it with other places in the world.
Latitude
Places in the Equator and tropics (between the Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn) are much warmer than places furthest
away near the poles.

This is due to the curvature of the earth and the angle of the
sun. At the equator and tropics the sun rises high in the sky. It
shines straight down and its heat is concentrated on a small area
which gets very hot.
Towards the poles the sun shines more at an angle. Its heat is
spread over a larger area and temperature are lower.
 Distance from the sea: 

The distance a place is from the sea affects its

temperature.
In summer places which are inland and away from the sea
are usually warmer than places near to the coast.
In winter it is usually the opposite with inland places
being cooler than places near to the coast.
The sea takes longer to warm than land, so places near the
sea are cooler in the summer because the sea cools them.
 However, the sea retains the heat better than the land so
places near the sea are warmer in the winter because the
sea warms them.
 Prevailing winds:
The prevailing wind is the direction from which the wind
usually comes. In Britain the prevailing wind is from the
south-east.

Prevailing winds will bring:

Cool weather if they blow over cool surfaces such as the
land in winter or the sea in summer
Warm weather if they blow over warm surfaces such as
the sea in winter or the land in summer.
Wet weather if they blow over sea areas and pick up
moisture
Dry weather if they blow over the land
 Relief(altitude):

Places which are high up and in mountains

have lower temperatures and more rainfall
than places which are lower down.
Prevailing wind from the sea pick up
moisture. As air rises it cools by 1°C for every
100 metres in height
This gives lower temperatures and as moist
air rises it cools down condensation takes
place , clouds are formed and it gives more
rainfall to the mountainous places.
 GIVE REASONS
1.Places near the equator are hot
throughout the year.
2.Mountains have lower temperatures.
Define the following terms

 Relief
 Prevailing winds
 What is Britain’s Climate
 The graph in diagram B shows the average monthly temperature and
rainfall for a place in Britain.
 The reasons why Britain has this of climate are given beside the
graph.

 Britain usually has

cool summers and
mild winters
 Although rain can fall
at any time of the
year, winter are
usually wetter than
summer.
Cool summer are due to:

 Britain’s latitude(50-60 north) being a

long way from the Equator.
 the cooling effect of the sea
 The prevailing wind from the cool sea

Mild winters are due to:

 The warming effect of the sea

 The prevailing wind from the warm
sea
Rainfall throughout the year is due to
the prevailing wind picking up
moisture as it crosses the sea. Three
types of rain which can fall in Britain
are shown below.
Frontal rain
falls when
warm air has
to rise over
cool air
Relief rain falls
when warm,
moist air is
forced to rise
over mountains
 Convectional rain
mainly summer
occurs when heated
ground warms the
air next to it. The
warm air then rises
causing
thunderstorm.
What other parts of the world have a ‘British ‘ climate?

Several other parts of the world have a similar type of

climate to Britain.
Although their climate is not exactly the same, they do
have cool summers, mild winters and rain throughout the
year.
These places are shown on map C.

Notice that these places:

Lie between latitudes 40° and 60° north or south of the
Equator.
Are mostly on the west coast of continents
Have prevailing winds coming from west, i.e. from the sea.
Have mountains inland from the coast.
 How does the climate differ in other parts of the world?

 Canadian Artic
o In this parts of the world it is always very cold, with a lot of snow in
winter.

 British Isles
o I can never be sure what weather will be like.
o It is usually cool in summer, mild in winter and if often rains.

 The Mediterranean
o Where I live we get hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.

 Amazon Basin, Brazil

o Where I live it is very hot and very wet all year.

 Sahara Desert
o I am used to every day being very hot and dry.
 Answer the following questions in your exercise
books

Describe why Britain has cool summers, mild

winters and rain throughout the year.

With the help of labelled diagrams, show how

Frontal, Relief and Convectional rainfall occur.

Copy the climate graph ‘B’ in your exercise book

shown on page no. 8 of Geography text book.
 ‘What are ecosystems?’
 An ecosystem is a community of plants and
animals which interact with each other and with
their non-living environment.
 The types of plants and animals that grow or live
in an environment depend on factors such as
climate, soil, rock type and relief.
 Look at diagram A which shows the links between
various elements of a simple ecosystem.
 Notice how the parts closely related and each
affects the others.
 This is important because if one component
changes, then will the others.
 Ecosystems can very enormously in scale.
 They range from small ponds and hedgerows to
whole rainforests stretching thousands of
kilometres across continents.
 A very large ecosystem such as a rainforest is
called a biome. The vegetation in biome is largely
determined by climate factors such as
temperature, rainfall sunshine and wind.
 Map B shows some of the world’s major
ecosystems.
 Two of these are explained in more detail in the
next few pages of this unit.
 In recent times, ecosystems have been
increasingly altered and even destroyed by human
activity.
 In Brazil for example, 40 percent of the original
rainforest has been cleared for development,
whilst across Scandinavia huge areas of coniferous
forest are slowly dying from air pollution called
acid rain.
Many people are worried that changes brought
about by human activity are irreversible and will
cause several problems in the future.
 What is the equatorial climate?

Graph A shows the equatorial type of climate. It is

hot and wet throughout the year. Rainfall is heavy and
falls during most afternoons. There are no winters or
summers(seasons) like there are in Britain. One day is
very similar to the next.

The daily pattern

The winter in Britain changes from day to day.
In equatorial areas the weather is far more
predictable. The weather pattern described below is
likely to be repeated day after day for most of the
year.
 Time Weather condition
6 am Sun rises as always at this time , no clouds in sky.
7 am Gets warmer. Very little wind
8 am Temperature 25° C (same as a warm summer afternoon in England)
9 am Temperature continues to rise.
10 Becomes very hot as the sun gets higher in the sky . Hot air rises.
11 Water from rivers, swamps and vegetation evaporates.
Mid-day Temperature reaches 33° C. Sun overhead. Hot air continues to rise.
1 pm Water vapour carried high into sky. Cools and condenses to form white
cumulus clouds.

2 pm Clouds increase in size and height. Turn into towering dark grey
Cumulo-nimbus rainclouds

3 pm Torrential rainstorm with thunder and lightning.

4 pm Storm continues
5 pm Storm ends. Clouds begin to break up
6 pm Sun sets. The night is clear and calm.
 Which places have an equatorial climate?

Map D shows this type of climate to be mainly

limited to places within 5° north or south of the
Equator.
The two main areas where it is found are huge
river basins of the Amazon in South America and the
Congo in Africa.
The major factor which affects this climate is its
latitude. The sun overhead throughout the year.
This gives high temperatures and is responsible for
the convectional rainfall.
There is no prevailing wind and the air is calm
apart from during thunderstorms.
 How can height affect different places with the same
latitude?
However, not all places near to the equator have this type
of climate. This is because of altitude.
In East Africa two mountains, Kilimanjaro and Kenya, rise
to nearby 6000 metres (19000 feet).
Two South American volcanoes, Cotopaxi and Chimborazo,
rise to similar heights in the Andes.
As photo E of Mount Kenya shows, this makes it cold
enough for snow to lie all year on the mountain summit.
 What are tropical rainforests?

The tropical rainforests grow in the equatorial

climate. They provide the most luxuriant vegetation
found on earth.
One third of the world’s trees grow here.
There are over 1,000 different types, including
hardwoods such as mahogany, greenheart and
rosewood.
The vegetation has had to adapt to the climate.
By adapt we mean that it had to learn to live with
the constant high temperatures and the heavy
rainfall (diagram A and Photo B).
 How vegetation has adapted to the equatorial climate?

The trees can grow to over 40 metres in the effort

to get sunlight.
The forest has an evergreen appearance due to the
continuous growing season. This means that trees
can shed leaves at any time, but always look green
and in leaf.
The leaves have drip tips to shed the heavy
rainfall.
Tree trunks are straight and branchless in their
lower parts in their efforts to grow tall.
Lianas, which are vine-like plants, use large trees
as a support to climb up to the canopy.
The forest floor is dark and damp. There is little
undergrowth because the sunlight cannot reach
ground level.
Dense undergrowth develops near rivers or in
forest clearings where sunlight can penetrate.
Rivers flood for several months each year.
Fallen leaves soon rot in the hot, wet climate.
Large buttress roots stand above the ground to
give support to the trees.
Most of the 1,000 types of trees have yet to be studied. Many
may prove to be valuable to us. Over half of our known drugs(e.g.
quinine which is used to treat malaria) have come from here.
Recently on plant, a type of periwinkle, has been found to be
successful in treating leukaemia in Children.
It is hoped that the rainforests may be a source of cures for other
illnesses such as cancer and AIDS.
Wildlife
Apart from large animals which would find it difficult to move
between the large trees, the rainforest is full of wildlife
(diagram C).
Some species live in the canopy; other live either in the under-
canopy, on the forest floor or in the many swamps and rivers.
Like the trees, wildlife has had to adapt in order to survive in
this climate and vegetation.
In many areas of rainforests, wildlife is threatened by
deforestation and other human activities.
 What is a Mediterranean climate?
Graph B shows the Mediterranean type of climate. It has
two very different seasons. The weather in summer is hot
and dry while in winter it is warm and wet.
 Why summers are hot and dry?

Summers are hot because the sun rises high into the sky.
Although it does not shine from directly overhead as it does
nearer the equator, it does rise higher than in places to the
north, like Britain.
Prevailing wind blows from the land.(Map C).
As the land is hot at this time of year then the wind blowing
from it will bring hot weather.
As the land is also dry then the wind blowing over it cannot
pick up much moisture.
This means that most places have very little rain and several
months of drought.
Apart from an occasional thunderstorm most days are
cloudless and sunny.
 Why are winters are warm and wet?
Although the sun is lower in the sky in winter it is still high
enough to give warm days.
The nearby sea, which was warmed during summer, only
loses its hear slowly in winter.
This keeps places near to the coast warm. Frost and snow
are unusual near sea-level.
 The prevailing wind blows from the opposite direction that
of summer(Map D).
As it now comes from the sea it brings air that is warm and
moist.
As the air rises over the many coastal mountains it gives
large amounts of relief rainfall and , at higher altitudes , snow.
However, wet days are usually separated by two or three
days which are arm and sunny.
 Which places have a Mediterranean Climate?

The name ‘Mediterranean’ is given to climates in

several different parts of world. hgMap E shows that
this type of climate is usually found:
On the west coasts of continents
Between latitudes 30° and 40° north and south of
the Equator.

In summer the prevailing wind comes from the east

and the weather is like that of the hot desert(Map C).
In winter the prevailing wind comers from the west
and the weather is more lie ours in Britain.(Map D)
 What is Mediterranean vegetation like?

Visitors to the Mediterranean in the spring and summer

will see masses of brightly coloured flowers as they arrive
by air or road.
On reaching their destination they will be met by the
perfume of numerous plants and herbs. Many of these
flowers and herbs have been planted by people who have
lived there.
The Natural vegetation of Mediterranean land is
woodland and scrub.
Scrub refers to small, stunted trees and bushes.
All the types of vegetation growing her have had to
adapt to the hot, dry summers and the warm, wet winters
(Sketch A).
 Many trees have small,
Some have thick barks thin waxy or leathery
as protection against leaves to reduce
the heat moisture loss

Many plants have long Rosemary can roll its

roots to reach down to leaves up tightly to
underground water reduce moisture loss

Quick life cycle to fit

into the short growing Very little grass too
season hot and too dry
The growth of most Mediterranean plants begins with the
start of the rainy in autumn.
Bulbs and scrub which have lain dormant(inactive) during
the summer heat and drought put out new shoots and begin
to flower.
The seeds of many annual plants germinate.
They continue to grow slowly through the winter when
water is available and temperatures are warm.
The flower in the spring when temperatures get warmer
and while the soil is still damp.
Seeds ripen in summer. They have thick coats as
protection against the intense heat.
Green plants, meanwhile shrivel up to become stiff and
thorny(Sketch A).
The evergreen trees grow slowly throughout the year.
 How has vegetation been changed by people?
Before people began to live around the Mediterranean sea the
land was covered in forest.
Today very little is left and the main vegetation is scrub.
This change can partly be blamed on a natural cause-a decline
in rainfall.
Mostly it is the result of activity by people who settled here,
and their grazing animals.
The trees were cut down for building houses and ships, and to
be used as fuel.
Young trees were eaten by herds of sheep and goats.
Forest fires, some started deliberately, have added to the
destruction. Some pine and cypress trees still grow in remote
area(Photo B).
Where the land is not used for farming or building it is either
covered in a thick tangle of low, spiky shrubs or left as bare
rock(Photo C).
Photo B Mediterranean woodland
Photo C Mediterranean scrub, Crete
 What is a hot desert climate?
Graph A shows the hot desert type of climate. The highest
temperatures on earth are recorded here, but they can fall rapidly in
winter. Although deserts are very dry, most places do get some rain.
However, amounts are small and reliable.
How would you like our weather?
Scorching hot in the day and
freezing cold at night. We hardly
ever see clouds or get rain. We get
strong winds which cause sand-
storms. The sand gets everywhere-
in our eyes, ears, mouth and even
up your nose!
 Temperature
In the hot deserts, unlike in Britain, there is a big difference between
daytime and night-time temperatures. As the hot deserts rarely have
any cloud, the sun easily heats the ground during the day and
temperatures can rise to 50° C. At night, with no cloud to keep in the
heat, temperatures often fall near to freezing. Hot deserts have two
seasons in a year. Summers are very hot while winters, although warm
when compared with Britain, are much cooler.
The Sahara is the world’s largest desert. Table C describes the factors
affecting temperatures.
Why does the Sahara get hot summers? Why are its winters much
cooler?

Latitude The sun is overhead at this time of year The sun is still high in the sky
but is no longer overhead.

Distance from sea Land areas heat up rapidly. It is a long Land areas lose heat rapidly.
way from any cooling effect of the sea. It is a long way from any
warming effect of the sea.

Prevailing wind Blows from the warm land. Blows from the cool land.
 Rainfall
Desert climates occur in places where air is descending . This the
opposite to Britain where the air usually rises. When air rises it cools
and condenses to give cloud and rain. In deserts the descending air
gets warmer, causes evaporation and gives cloudless skies. With few
rivers and little vegetation the amount of water available for
evaporation is limited.
Prevailing winds do not bring rain as they come from the land.
(Table D). When rain does fall it come in heavy, convectional storms.
Some places may et two or three storms in a single month and then go
without rain for two or three years. That is why rainfall is said to be
unreliable.
Why is the Sahara so dry
Prevailing wind Blows from the land. No moisture to pick up and so
too dry to form clouds or give rain.
Descending air Air descends and warms up. As there is no
condensation, skies remain cloudless and the
weather stays dry.
 Which places have hot desert climate
Map E shows that this type of climate is found :
 In the centre or on the west coast of continents
 Usually between latitudes 10° and 30 ° north or south of the equator.
 Where the prevailing wind comes from the dry land.
 How do plants and wildlife survive in hot deserts?

The biggest problems in the desert is the shortage of water. Plants

and wildlife that live there have had to find ways of looking for ,
and storing , water. This means that they have had to adapt to
living in drought conditions.

Only a few specially adapted plants can survive (diagram A ). They

have to grow a long way from neighbouring plants and they have
to lie dormant for long periods. Dormant means that a plant is
resting and is inactive. Occasional desert rainstorms will suddenly
bring plants back to life. Within hours the desert ‘blooms’ as each
plant takes advantage of the extra water.
After heavy rain a large Cacti seeds can lie
Saguaro can soak up a dormant for several years
thousand litres of water until rains.
It can store 8,000 litres of
water

People lost in desert have survived by cutting Spikes instead of leaves reduce
out part of the stem and drinking the loss of moisture and stop
moisture. animals from eating the plant.
Thick , waxy skin reflects
some of the sun’s heat and
reduces loss of moisture.
Fleshy stems store water

Some plants can store

water in bulbs on their
roots.

Cacti have many long but shallow

Thorn bushes have no leaves roots to soak up as much water as
possible after rain.
Saguaro cactus takes 130 years to mature
to a height of 15 metres, can live for 200
years
Wildlife not only need water but has to avoid the high daytime temperatures.
many species are nocturnal – they are only active at night. Some burrow into
the sand to avoid the daytime heat. Others, like the camel, can store water.
The gerenuk antelope never drinks but gets all its water from the plants on
which it feeds.
Lizards are cold-blooded . They need heat to become active and then they
can stand very high temperatures. Other wildlife includes insects such as
scorpions, birds such as road –runners, and sidewinder rattlesnakes.

Camels live in hot deserts and can

store water for long journeys. They can
close their eyes, nose and mouth in a
sandstorm. They have large pads on
their feet for walking over sand and
stones. Their tough, leathery mouths
let them eat the few thorny plants that
grow in the desert.
 What are polar regions like?
Graph B shows the polar type of climate. Summer are very short and
cool. Winters are long and very cold. The amount of precipitation is
usually small, and often falls as snow.
The temperature in polar climates never gets as high as 10°C. the
dominant factors affecting this climate is latitude. In summer the sun is
always low in the sky and even in the daytime, temperatures do not
rise much above freezing point. In winter the sun may never even rise
above horizon at all, and temperatures remain well below zero all day.
Places close to the North and South Pole can have 24 hours of daylight
in summer and the sun shines at midnight. In winter, however, these
places have 24 hours of darkness.
It is possible to divide the polar climate into two types:
1) The tundra where for at least one month a year the average
temperature is 1°C or higher.
2) The ice cap where the average temperature never rises above 0°
Because the air is so cold in polar regions . It cannot pick up much
moisture. The drier the air, the less chance there is of precipitation.
Most areas with a polar climate have less than 250 mm precipitation a
year, and this usually falls as snow due to the low temperatures. When
strong winds blow they can cause blizzards and lower the temperature
even further. The seas in these areas freeze in winter and , at the
North Pole, remain frozen all year. The windiest and coldest places on
earth are both in Antarctica .

Which places have a polar climate?

As map C shows, most places with a polar climate lie within the Arctic
and Antarctica Circles. The tundra covers the extreme north of both
North America and Asia. The ice cap climate is limited to Greenland in
the northern hemisphere , and Antarctica in the southern hemisphere.
What is the polar vegetation like?
In the tundra the climate is too cold and too dry for trees to grow. Even
in summer the ground remains frozen and any snow that melts
remains on the surface . The only vegetation is low-growing,
specialized plants that can survive in a very short growing season. In
the ice cap regions, nothing at all can grow.
 Wildlife
Although there are relatively few species, they are found in quite large
numbers. The tundra includes migratory reindeer and caribou. In the
ice cap regions there are polar bears and walrus in the Arctic, and
penguins and whales in the Antarctic.
How is the ecosystem changing?

Climate change is affecting polar regions more than any

other environmental region. In the tundra the underlying
frozen ground is lowly melting,. In the Arctic , both glaciers
on land and the frozen sea are also melting as the sea ice
melts, this becomes a major threat to polar bears . The
National Snow and Ice Date Center has useful information
about the effects of climate change on sea ice.