Dusts
Chapter-4
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Dusts
Dynamic behavior of air-borne particulate matter:
Dust is the second category of air-borne contaminant
which is of major concern to the mining engineer
Dust have much in common with gases in their
modes of occurrence, behavior, and control
Aerosols:
Air-borne suspension of particulate matter are termed
aerosols
Aerosols are of pulmonary concern.
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Principles of Dynamic behavior of air-borne dust:
Particulate matter, whether liquid or solid, exhibits remarkably
similar behavior when air-borne.
The dust Particles of either pathological or combustible consequence
are predominantly below 10 microns(µ) in size (10µ =0.0004in)
Particles larger then 10µ are unlikely to remain long in suspension in
air streams of even moderate velocity
Industrial and mine dust characteristically have a mean range of
0.5-3µ. Chemical activity increases with decreasing particle size
The dust below 10µ in size, which are of serious consequence in air
hygiene, have no significant weight or inertia and hence remain
suspended in atmosphere .
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Principles of Dynamic behavior of air-
borne dust:
The control of fine dust( below 10µ) that have
become air-born requires control of air stream in
which they are suspended. This is the basic
concept of dust control.
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Classification of dusts:
Dusts are classified on the basis of their harmful physiological effects or
explosive properties
In each category , dusts are listed in the order of decreasing harm.
1. Pulmonary Dusts (harmful to respiratory system)
a. Silica (quartz, chert)
b. Silicates (asbestos, talk, mica, sillimanite)
c. Metal fumes (nearly all)
d. Beryllium ore
e. Tin ore
f. Iron ore (some)
g. Carborandum
h. Coal (anthracite, bituminous)
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Classification of dusts:
2. Toxic dusts (poisonous to body organs, tissue, etc)
Ores of beryllium, arsenic, lead, uranium, radium, thorium, chromium,
vanadium, mercury etc. (principally the oxides and carbonates)
3. Radioactive dusts (injurious because of radiation)
Ores of uranium, radium, thorium
4. Explosive dusts ( combustible when air-borne)
a. Metallic dusts (magnesium, aluminum, zinc, tin , iron)
b. Coal (bituminous, lignite)
c. Sulphide ores
5. Inert dust (no harmful effects)-- Non
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Classification of dusts:
Any dust, if present in excessive amount for a
sufficient time can cause pathological damage to
human beings.
Thus it must be considered as pulmonary dust.
Factors determining the harmfulness are
Composition, particle size and
susceptibility of individuals.
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Physiological effect of pulmonary dusts :
The human respiratory system:
The nasal passage and mouth open in to the trachea
(wind pipe) in throat.
The trachea in turn leads to the bronchial ramus.
These tubes conduct air into right and left branch.
Each branch sub divides into many smaller tubes the
bronchioles.
The bronchioles end in small sacs, the alveoli.
The oxygenation of the blood takes place in alveoli.
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Physiological effect of pulmonary dusts:
Safeguards :
The respiratory system has many built in safeguard to
protect the tissues from the harmful effects of dusts.
1. Upper reparatory system—a system of filters.
2. Hairs in nasal passage filters out larger particles (over 5µ)
3. Mucus membrane, lining the nose and throat, traps still
more particles larger and smaller.
4. In the trachea and bronchi, hair like cilia sweep medium
sized particles (5-10µ) upward with a vibratory motion
into throat where they are swallowed.
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Physiological effect of pulmonary dusts:
The secondary line of defense against small particles is
elimination.
In the alveoli, a tiny jelly like wandering cells called phagocytes
await the particles which reach the lungs.
Mostly 1 size particles reach alveolar spaces.
The phagocytes envelop any foreign matter and move it to
drainage vassals called lymphatic.
Lymphatics are present in the wall of blood vessels , in the
bronchi, and in partitions in the lungs.
These vessels empty into lymph nodes , the sedimentation chamber
of the body waste system and are eventually discharged.
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Physiological effect of pulmonary dusts:
Harmful effect on the lung:
When dusts are excessive, or more active and exposure is
prolonged the defense of the respiratory system break down.
Pulmonary damage may take several forms.
The mild type of these is the functioning of lungs is
impaired by
Accumulation of dusts-laden cells around lymph ducts and
nodes.
It produces a local inflammation and increase the susceptibility
to disease.
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Physiological effect of pulmonary
dusts:
The worst case is when
A high degree of surface activity (e.g. with free silica etc)
react chemically with phagocytes in the alveoli
The cells die , accumulate in the lymph nodes and around
the lymph vessels.
Thus it impairs the drainage system.
A nodular type of fibrosis ( scar tissue) results in those
areas of the lungs.
This is a progressive diseases
Even the patient is no longer in contact with dusts.
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Physiological effect of pulmonary dusts:
Symptoms in advanced stages;
Shortness of breath
Labored breathing
Chest pains
Coughing
Loss of body strength
Spitting blood
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Respiratory ailments or dieses
A dusts may produce a fibrous or non fibrous disease the
collective name of which is pneumoconiosis.
Names of disease and the principle dusts are as below.
1. Silicosis (miner’s phthisis), by free silica.
2. Silico-tuberculosis (complication of tuberculosis by silica)
3. Asbestosis, by asbestos
4. Silicatosis, by other silicates
5. Siderosis, by iron or iron ores
6. Anthracosis, by coal, both bituminous and anthracite,
suspected also to contain free silica.
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Respiratory ailments or dieses
Silicosis is the best known and most serious.
Silicosis and asbestosis are characterized by
distinct nodular fibrosis.
Asbestosis may be due to mechanical action than
chemical one.
Long asbestos fibers are not readily eliminated
from lungs.
These fibers act as irritant and produce fibrosis.
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Physiological effect of other dusts:
Toxic dusts harms the organs (stomach, liver,
kidney, etc), of the body
Radioactive dusts, causes lung cancer, radiation
damage to the body
Lead and radium ore dusts, causes irritation and
damage to eyes or skin
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Factors which determine dust harmfulness to
humans:
The Factors which determine dust harmfulness to human
are
a. Composition
b. Chemical
c. Mineralogical
2. Concentration
One number basis:
Units are million of particles per cu ft of air (mppcf) in
united states and particles per cc(ppcc) abroad
(1mppcf=35ppcc)
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Factors which determine dust harmfulness to humans:
3. On weight basis:
units are g per cu m(mg/1) or oz or gr per cuft
(1gr/cuft=2.3mg/cum
4. Particles size
5. Exposure time
6. Individual susceptibility
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Factors which determine dust harmfulness to humans:
1. Composition:
Mineralogical composition is more important than chemical.
Chemical properties are more important than physical.
This priority is based on pathological harmfulness of dusts.
For example free silica has greater activity than combined
silica.
This is due to the surface energy of the particles.
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Factors which determine dust
harmfulness to humans:
In case of asbestos the mechanical action is more
important.
Solubility is the principle variable in case of toxic dusts.
2. Concentration:
Harmful dusts must be present in concentration
greater than 5mppcf to produce pulmonary damage.
Certain toxic and radioactive dusts cause damage in
smaller amount ( less than 1mppcf).
Fig. 4.2 for detail.
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Factors which determine dust
harmfulness to humans:
3. Particle Size:
Fine dusts are more hazardous.
This because of more surface area and hence more
chemical activity.
Pulmonary damage is more prevalent from dusts of
0.2 u to 5u particle size.
Practically all mine dusts have the same size range.
Finer dusts have the greatest penetration but least
retention in the lungs.
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Factors which determine dust
harmfulness to humans:
4. Exposure Time:
Rare case have been diagnosed for silicosis after
less than 1 year.
Average time for development of silicosis is 15-20
years.
Radiation damage is not opt to show up before 10
to 17 years.
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Factors which determine dust
harmfulness to humans:
5. Individual susceptibility:
An unknown quantity.
Varies from 1 to 3
It is to be noted that
The combined effect of all the factors so for
mentioned produces pneumoconiosis.
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Explosive Dusts and Factors in Ignition:
A dusts explosion consists of a sudden pressure
rise caused by the very rapid combustion of air
born dusts.
Ignition of combustible dusts occur in following
ways
1. Initiation by flame or spark
2. Propagation by a gas explosion or blasting
3. Spontaneous combustion
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Explosive Dusts and Factors in Ignition
Coal Dusts:
Common explosive dusts encountered are
bituminous coal dusts.
Coal dusts can explode even in the absence of gas.
In addition the following physical and chemical
factors influence the explosibility.
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Explosive Dusts and Factors in
Ignition
1. Composition :
Volatile content of coal is the principal determinant.
Explosibility increases linearly to about 25% ( medium-
volatile coal).
High rank coal ( low volatile content) are least susceptible.
If the Volatile content divided by volatile content +fixed
carbon exceeds 0.12
Then the dust is potentially explosive.
Anthracite coal is non explosive at normal temperature.
Moisture and ash reduces explosibility.
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Explosive Dusts and Factors in
Ignition
2. Particle size:
Finer the dust the most explosive it would be.
Coal dust over 20 mesh (850 ) enter into explosion.
3. Concentration:
Minimum airborne dust concentration to be
explosive is 0.035 oz per cu ft.
This corresponds to 35,000 mppcf, if the mean size
is 3.
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Explosive Dusts and Factors in
Ignition
4. Flammable gases:
The presence of methane gas enhances the ease
of coal dust.
5. Relative humidity of air:
Practically no effect on coal dust explosion.
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Threshold limits:
The following threshold limits (MAC) have been
established for mineral dusts
High silica (>50%), asbestos……….. 5 mppcf
Medium silica ( 5-50%), talk, mica…. 20 mppcf
Low silica (<5%), cement, slate, nuisance.. 50 mppcf
Total, all dust ……………………………. 50 mppcf
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Explosibility of coal and Metallic
Dusts
Dusts Minimum Ignition Minimum
concentration, temperature Co Pressure, psi
oz/cu ft x 103
Aluminum 25 645 89
Iron 250 425 36
Magnesium 20 530 72
Titanium 45 480 52
Zinc 480 600 36
Coal 35 610 46
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Threshold limits for coal and
radioactive minerals
Threshold for coal dusts adopted by the US
Bureau of mines
Average shift exposure--------20 mppcf
Single operation exposure----40 mppcf
Radiation :
MAC for radioactive mineral is based on radiation
emission and its daughter products.
It is set as 300 micro micro curies per liter (c/l).
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Threshold limits for toxic or nuisances
dusts
Toxic or nuisance compound Mg.cu.m
Mercury 0.1
Lead 0.2
Antimony, arsenic, barium 0.5
Manganese 6.0
Iron , zinc, magnesium oxide, 15
molybdenum
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Example 4-1
Given the survey results below, find the average
shift exposure.
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Operation Time, min Concentration, Number * Time
mppcf
Tramming 200 3.5 700
Drawing chutes 80 18.5 1496
Dumping cars 115 11.2 1288
Maintenance 35 2.7 94
Idle 50 2.0 100
Total 480 3678
Solution:
Avg. Shift Exposure =
3678/480=7.7 mppcf
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Air born dusts determinations:
Dusts, unlike gases do not cause immediate harm.
Their effect may not be evident for years.
Analytical dusts determination is justifiable but
time consuming.
Once the dusts have been trapped by the sampler,
then
Concentration, particle size and composition is
determined in the laboratory.
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Air born dusts determinations:
Air born dusts are determined in following manner
Sampling:
The following instruments are used for dust sampling
1. Standard impinger
2. Midget impinger
3. Konimeter
4. Filter paper sampler
5. Molecular filter sampler
6. Electrostatic precipitator
7. Thermal precipitator
8. Radiation survey meter
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Air born dusts determinations:
1. Midget impinger:
Small scale version of the standard impinger.
Inefficient for fine dusts.
Relatively low in sampling rate.
It is safe, portable, easy to use and needs no external force.
Operation:
Air drawn into nozzle impinges at high velocity against the
liquid in the flask.
Dusts are deposited and air exhausted.
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Air born dusts determinations:
Liquid used is mostly distilled water or alcohol.
Liquid should not be a solvent for dusts.
A 10 minutes sampling period is usually adequate.
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2. konimeter
Instantaneous type ( grab) sampler.
Small quantity of air is drawn by spring activated
piston.
Air impinges against a circular glass plate.
Plate is often coated by petroleum jelly.
Particles sticks to the plate and air leaves.
Dusts may be quantitated by attached microscope.
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3. Filter-paper sampler
A high volume sampler.
Uses a plane or fibrous filter paper of various
metals.
Dusts particles collect on the paper as air is
drawn.
Suction pump is used as external force.
High efficiency can be obtained by using special
material like fiber glass and membranes.
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4. Molecular- Filter paper
Uses a porous-membrane filter of very small
openings.
Almost 100% efficiency at moderate rate of flow.
Flow rate is controlled by calibrated orifices.
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5. Electrostatic precipitator
This is the most efficient one.
Air is drawn though a metal tube (anode.)
This tube serves as collecting surface.
Platinum wire passing axially through the tube act as
cathode.
The cathode ionizes the particles creating –ve charge
on the particles.
Thus particles are attracted towards passively charged
cathode tube the anode.
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6. Radiation survey meter
Alpha particles emitted from radon gas and its
daughters attach to particles and water droplets.
Air drawn in to the instruments detects the alpha
particles.
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Quantitation:
How much dusts, how many particles, concentration or particles size.
Determined under microscope
Two methods for Quantitation.
Number bases
Weight bases
Number bases is preferred for evaluating a pulmonary hazard
while the weight base is preferred for
toxic, radioactive, or explosive dusts.
Number base is usually applied for impinger,, Konimeter, molecular
filter and thermal precipitator.
Weight Quantitation is used for filter paper and electrostatic
precipitator.
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Quantitation:
Formidget impinger ( sampling
rate=0.1cfm) the equation is
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Quantitation:
Example :4.2
Field counts: 72, 83, 71, 75, and 80
Sampling period: 12 minutes
Dilution: 22 ml
Avg. blank count: 8
Required: avg. dust concentration.
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Example :4.2
Solution:
Avg. field counts: (72+83+71+75+80)/5=76-8=68
Concentration=(4*68*22)/(100*12)= 5.0 mppcf
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Dusty operation and sources of dusts
The mining operation which are responsible for dustiness are
classified according to source, in order of decreasing
importance .
Almost all activities are responsible for air pollution.
Primary source:
if an operation produces or creates a dust.
Secondary source:
if an operation agitates or disperse dust.
+ symbol for major source
– symbol for minor source and
0 symbol for negligible source.
OPERATION PRIMERY SOURCE
51 SECANDARY SOURCE
Blasting + (major source) +
Cutting, continuous mining + _
Drawing chutes _ ( minor source) +
Drilling + 0
Mucking, loading _ +
Blowing holes 0 ( negligible source) +
Dumping cars _ +
Slushing _ +
Belt transfer, discharging 0 _
Haulage 0 _
Timbering 0 _
Barring down 0 _
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Engineering dust control
Prevention
Avoidance by modifying operation or improving
practice
Reducing amount formed with properly maintained
equipment
Removal
Clean up workings to eliminate settled dust
Air cleaning with dust collector
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Engineering dust control
Suppression:
Infusion with water or steam in advance of mining
Allying with water or foam in spray
Treating settled dust with deliquescent chemicals
• Isolation:
Restricted blasting or off-shift blasting
Enclosure of operation
Local exhaust systems
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Engineering dust control
• Dilution:
Local dilution by auxiliary ventilation
Dilution by main ventilation air stream
Rock dusting to dilute combustible content of settled
dust
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Engineering dust control
Cardinal rule:
“prevent dust from becoming airborne”
Once the solid contaminant becomes airborne, the control task
becomes difficult and costly.
Ventilation:
Either auxiliary or main ventilation system for control of dusts.
Velocity range of air is 10 to 30 fpm.
But some times 50 to 100 fpm is maintained as a safety factor.
The upper velocity is determined by comfort and economic limit.
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Engineering dust control
In main airways the velocity is less than 800 fpm.
Usually restricted to a maximum of 300 to 400 fpm.
High velocities raise the dust.
Allaying with water:
Wetting muck piles prior to loading.
Spraying loaded mine cars prior to dumping.
Suppressing airborne dust is a difficult task.
Special mist type nozzles are used to produce finely
atomized spray of water.
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Engineering dust control
Water coagulates with dust particle and increase its
weight.
High pressure up to 600 psi produce smaller particles.
Surface tension can be reduced by additives in the
water.
Water infusion:
A technique used in advance of mining.
Water is injected in to coal face trough long drill holes.
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Engineering dust control
Four to six holes per face are sufficient.
Length of holes 20 to 60 ft.
Liquid infuses in to the seam along crakes and fissures.
It penetrates the coal a considerable distance wetting the
coal.
Thus reducing dust concentration by almost 80%.
Pulsed infusion technique is that water is induced along with
explosive charge.
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Engineering dust control
Local exhaust:
Hoods and traps are used to trap the dusts.
The principal use in mining is in drilling
Either for blast holes or
Roof bolts
Dry exhaust system are used to flush the holes.
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Engineering dust control
Hoods are the predominant dust control method
with roof bolts.
Local exhaust system is operated by fan or
injector.
Dust laden air is cleaned in centrifugal or filter
type dust collector before discharged to
atmosphere.
See fig.4-8 for detail.
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Engineering dust control
Dust collectors :
Dust collectors are used in conjunction with local
exhaust system.
Occasionally mounted on loading and continuous
mining machines.
They are also used for cleaning recirculated air in
the main ventilation system.
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Engineering dust control
Rock dusting:
Rock dusting is used to combat explosive dusts.
Inert dust is sprayed on roof, floor and ribs in all
working places.
The incombustible settled dust must constitute
65% or more by weight.
This amount should increase by 1% for each 0.1%
methane.
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Engineering dust control
Deliquescent and binding materials:
These are used to suppress in roadways and
haulage ways.
Calcium chloride and lignin sulfonate are the
typical binders commonly used.
The hard cake formed on the floor will reduce the
explosibility of dusts.
