Advanced Social

Psychology
Noshaba Mansoor
Cooperation, Competition and Conflicts
Social Interaction and Social Process
Each and every person is a social and cultural being. It is
very difficult for people to live in isolation. Human
beings always live in various groups and associations.
They act and behave in a certain manner. In each and
every moment, the behaviour of each individual is
affected by the behaviour of others. This interaction is
the essence of social life.
Green defines social interaction as “the mutual influences that affects groups.
Also these groups affect one another in their attempts to solve problems and
in their striving towards goals”.
According to Dawson and Gettys,
“Social interaction is a process whereby men interpenetrate (to reach or affect
something) the minds of each other.”
Gish defined social interaction as,“ it is the reciprocal influence in which
human beings exert on each other through inter stimulation and response.”
Thus we can say that social interaction refers to the entire range of social
relationships, wherein there is reciprocal stimulation and response between
individuals.
Social interaction produces some definite influence upon social relations
that exists among human beings. Two essential conditions of social
interaction are:
i) social contact
ii) communication

Social Contact
Social contact can be established through the medium of radio, letters,
telephones and other media of communication. Social contact is the
first and important phase of interaction. It may be positive or negative.
If it is positive, they lead to cooperation, mutual understanding and
assimilation. If it is negative, they create hatred, jealousy and conflict.
MacIver observes, “social process is the manner in which the
relations of the members of a group, are brought together to
acquire a certain distinctive character.
According to Gillin and Gillin, “by social processes we mean
those ways of interacting by which we can establish system of
relationships or find out what happens when changes of
relationships occur or what happens when changes disturb
already existing modes of life.”
In this context we can use three important terms, viz.,
cooperation, competition and conflict.
Communication
Social interaction requires essential communication. Besides
this, communications are essential adjuncts (something added)
of social contact. Language, gestures, symbols, radio,
telephone, television, newspaper etc. are the media for
communication.
Human interaction is undoubtedly a communicative
interaction. In this context, we can further say that social
interaction usually takes place in the form of co-operation,
competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation.
Cooperation means working together in the pursuit of a common
interest. It is a joint activity. It is the conscious form of social
interaction where two or more persons work together to gain a
common end.
Cooperation may be of different types. Cooperation for human
beings is both a psychological and social necessity.
On the other hand, competition is an unconscious, impersonal
and continuous struggle between individuals and groups for
satisfaction. It is a contest to obtain
something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet
the demand.
Competition, like co-operation, is indispensable in social
life. Competition performs many useful functions in
society. At different levels, competition occurs. It may
be economic, cultural, social, and political.
There is no society which is exclusively competitive or
exclusively cooperative. Besides competition and
cooperation, conflict is another important process in
human relations.
Conflict is a conscious action as well as personal activity.
It lacks continuity but it is a universal phenomena.
Causes of conflict are mainly individual differences,
cultural differences, clash of interest, social change
etc. Besides this, conflict serves constructive and
positive ends. Conflict has both integrative and
disintegrative effects.
Interaction is a two-way process whereby each individual or
group stimulates the other and in varying degrees modifies
the behaviour of the participants.
The behaviour and personality characteristics of individual
members of a group affect the behaviour of others and make a
significant impact over the functioning of a group as a whole.
The behaviour of each individual is affected by the behaviour of
other individual. This is known as interaction process and it is
the essence of social life.
The main forms of social interaction are cooperation,
competition, conflict, accommodation and
assimilation. Combinations of these are called social
processes. Social interaction and social process are:
1) sequence of events
2) repetition of events
3) relationship between events
4) continuity of events
5) special results
Actually society is an arena where there is expression of
different social processes. Social processes are
fundamental to the life of a community.
Society exists wherever several individuals are in
reciprocal relationships. It constitutes an aggregation of
individuals in a society. So we can say that there are two
forms of social interaction i.e.
i) conjunctive (relating to or  forming connections between things)
ii) disjunctive (lacking any clear connection )
Cooperation
Cooperation
Cooperation is an integrating activity and is believed to be the
opposite of competition. The word “cooperation” is derived from
the two Latin words “co” meaning together and “operari” meaning
to work.
It is thus a joint activity in pursuit of common goals or shared
rewards. It is goal oriented and conscious form of social interaction.
Actually it involves two elements – (i) common end and
(ii) organised effort. It is the process by which individuals or groups
combine their effort, in a more or less organised way for the
attainment of common objective.
Generally co-operation means working together for a common objective. In
many festivals, volunteers work together to collect money from different
parts and want to organise the program successfully and everybody want to
stretch forward their hands to celebrate the occasion successfully.
Among the members of the group, there seems to be indication of good
interaction process. All of them behave in co-operative manner. Co-
operation is brought about by several factors which includes the following:
1.desire for individual benefits
2.desire to give and share
3.total decision on common purposes
4.situational necessity and
5.desire to achieve larger goals.
Types of Cooperation
We can classify cooperation into five categories, viz.
i) Direct cooperation
ii) Indirect cooperation
iii) Primary cooperation
iv) Secondary cooperation and
v) Tertiary cooperation

i) Direct cooperation: In this category cooperating individuals

do things of common interest together and perform identical
functions. Playing together, worshiping together are the examples
of direct co-operation.
ii) Indirect cooperation: In this type of cooperation individuals
work towards a common end each has his own specialised functions.
Thus, we can say that indirect cooperation is obtained when people
perform dissimilar tasks towards a common end, i.e., each has its
specialised role to play.
iii) Primary cooperation: There is an identity of interest between
the individual and the group. It is the cooperation which is found in
primary groups such as family. Not only family but also peer groups is
also called primary cooperation where people have to choose face-to-
face relations. We can also say that interest of the individual merge
with the interest of the primary group.
iv) Secondary cooperation: This type of cooperation is
generally found in the secondary group, viz., government,
industry and trade union etc.
v) Tertiary cooperation: This is the interaction between
various big and small groups to meet a particular situation.
Here the individual or group who wants to compete with one
another, come together and cooperate with each other for a
specific purpose. In such type of cooperation the attitudes of
the cooperating parties are purely opportunistic.
Role of Cooperation
It is a universal phenomenon. Cooperation for human beings is
both a psychological and social necessity. Individual as well as
collective goals can not be achieved without cooperation.
Cooperation is essential for maintenance of social order. We
can not do anything without cooperation, if we are to live as
members of the society. Family members cooperate with each
other in terms of sharing economic, emotional and social
requirements of one another.
All the activity in each and every family is done in a
cooperative way. The physical, mental and even the
spiritual needs of the individual remain unsatisfied if
he does not agree to cooperate with his fellow
members.
Competition
Competition is the most important form of social struggle.
According to Anderson and Parker,
“Competition is that form of social action in which we strive
against each other for the possession of or use of some
limited material and non-material goods.”
According to Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell,
“Competition is an impersonal, unconscious continuous
struggle which, because of their limited supply, all may not
have.”
Competition is a form of interaction. It is the struggle for
position to gain economic status. It occurs whenever
there is an insufficient supply of anything that human
being desire - insufficient in the sense that all cannot
have as much of it as they wish.
Sometimes competition happens because of limited
supply and also difficult for equal distribution.
Characteristics of Competition
The characteristics of competition are:
1. Competition is impersonal struggle.
Park and Burgess defined competition as “interaction without social
contact.” We can say it is inter-individual struggle that is
impersonal. It is usually not directed against any individual or
group in particular.
2. Competition is universal. There is no society which is devoid of
competition. Not only this, degree of competition may vary from
society to society. It is very common for society as well as culture.
3. Competition is considered as conducive to progress.
Competition provides the individuals better
opportunities to satisfy their desires for new
experiences and recognitions.
4. Both associative and non-associative dimensions of
social processes indicate competition.
5. Competition is mainly an unconscious activity but
personal competition or rivalry is a conscious activity
6. Competition may create emotional disturbances.
7. Competition is an innate tendency.
8. Competition is a social phenomenon.
9. Degree of competition is determined by social values
and social structure.
Value of Competition
Competition is indispensable in social life. Competition
performs many powerful functions in society.
Sometimes competition is extremely dynamic. It
performs five positive functions.
1. It helps to determine the status and location of
individual members in a system of hierarchy.
2. It tends to stimulate economy, efficiency and
inventiveness.
3. It tends to enhance one’s ego.
4. It prevents undue concentration of power in an individual or group of
individuals.
5. It creates respect for the rules of the same group.
We can say that competition determines who is to perform what function.
According to Ross, “Competition performs that broad function of assigning
to each individual in his social world. Competition is a progressive force
which fulfils and does not necessarily destroy.”
We can further say that fair competition is conducive to economic as well as
social progress. Competition provides the individuals better opportunities
to satisfy their desires for new experiences and recognition.
Conflict
Conflict is a conscious action. It is a deliberate intent to oppose. We
can say that conflict is universal. Not only this, conflict lacks
continuity. Besides this, it is a personal activity.
Green defined, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist
and coerce the will of another or others.”
Conflict is a competition in its more occasional, personal and hostile
forms. It is a process of seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or
weakening the competitors. It is inherent in every society or social
system. Conflict is apparently noted when an individual or a group
seeks to attain its own end. Conflict is the opposite of cooperation.
Causes of Conflict
According to Freud and some other psychologists, the
innate instinct for aggression in man is the main cause
of conflicts. Generally it arises from a clash of interest
within groups and societies and between groups and
societies. The significant causes are:
Individual difference – It is true that, we, the human
being, are not alike by nature, attributes, interests,
personalities etc. These differences may lead to conflict
among the human being.
Cultural differences – The culture of a group differs from the culture of the
other group. The cultural differences among the groups sometimes cause
tension and lead to conflict.
Differences of opinion regarding interest – In fact, the interests of
different people or groups occasionally clash. For example we can say that
interests of the employers and employees vary in many respect which may
ultimately leads to conflict among them.
Social change – Social changes occur off and on in each and every society.
Conflict is an expression of social disequilibrium. Social change is the
cultural log which leads to conflict.
Characteristics of Conflict
The characteristics of conflicts are:
1. Although conflict is universal but it’s nature vary
from society to society. No society is characterised
exclusively by conflict.
2. Conflict is a conscious action. To achieve the
respective goals the members oppose one another.
3. Conflict leads to social change. It is mainly an
expression of disequilibrium.
4. It primarily remains personal activity. Sometimes it acquires
greater intensity and involves many people. At first, it is
manifested at the level of a particular group but ultimately it
involves the entire society.
5. Asymmetrical social, political and economic relations coupled
with the sense of relative deprivation as the root cause of social
conflict.
6. Sometimes conflict is the life of society and progress emerges
from a struggle in which each individual, class or institution
seeks to realise its own idea of good.
7. When the people are organised into groups to seek a common
goal, the probability of conflict increases.
8. All conflicts are not the same.
9. We face conflicts on all levels as we have disagreements with
family, friends and co-workers.
10. Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations.
11. Unmanaged conflict is a threat to the survival of the group and
ultimately tends to make the group less effective.
12. Conflict can occur within groups (intra-group conflict) and
among groups (inter-group conflict)
Effects of Conflict
Conflict sometimes creates positive and sometimes creates
negative impact. The effects of conflict are many and
manifold. It is varied as well as unpredictable. We can say that
the conflict may have the following effects:
1. Increases tension within or between the groups.
2. Disrupt normal activities
3. Weaken group activities
4. Harmful to individuals
5. Help to restructure the group
6. Help to form new groups
7. Gives positive result
8. Improves decision-making process
9. Increase bitterness
10. Increase alienation
11.Become violent
12.Help to gain recognition
13.Increase unity and cohesion
14.Strengthen group boundaries

Thus, we can say that conflict has both positive and negative effects. It is true that
conflict happens in any set-up and it creates impact on group members.
Types of Conflict
Conflict may be of various types, viz,
1) Overt and covert: Overt conflict has some
manifestation but covert conflict or latent conflict
primarily remains invisible.

2) Personal and corporate: Personal conflict occurs

within the group due to hostility, jealousy etc., on the
other hand, corporate conflict occurs among the groups
within a society or between two societies.
3) Temporary and perpetual: When conflict occurs
among the individuals in the bus or in the shop or in
the road are called temporary conflict, on the other
hand when conflict occurs between two rival groups,
then it is called perpetual conflict.
Conflict is not a continuous process. It may stretch for
sometime. In each and every conflict there is
intermittent period of peace and social harmony.
According to Gillin and Gillin, conflict can be divided into five
types, viz.,
1. Personal conflict – It is the conflict between two persons
within the same group.
2. Racial conflict – It is the result of the feeling or racial
superiority or inferiority.
3. Class conflict – It is the conflict between two classes.
4. Political conflict – It is the conflict between parties of political
power.
5. International conflict – It is the conflict between two nations.
Distinction between Conflict and
Competition
1. Conflict takes place on a conscious level,
competition is unconscious.
2. Competition is non-violent, but conflict may
create violence.
3. Conflict involves contact, competition does not.
4. Competition is a continuous process, but conflict
is an intermittent process.
5. Conflict disregards social norms but competition
does care social norms.
6. Conflict takes place on a conscious level but
competition is unconscious.
Besides this, we can say that conflict and competition
have a common root because in each case
individuals and groups are generally striving
towards incompatible goals.
Conflict may lead to alliances with other groups, creating
bonds between loosely structured groups or bringing together
different individuals and groups in a community as they write
to fight a common threat.
The structure of the group and its degree of tolerance of
conflict will affect the results of intra group dissatisfaction.
Actually conflict is a fundamental human and social trait.
Cooperation is a condition of conflict. Internal harmony and
external conflict are the opposite sides of the same shield.
Accommodation
Conflict is a continuous intermittent-societal process.
Accommodation is resolution of conflicts which means
adjusting oneself to the new environment.
Accommodation denotes acquired changes in the behaviour
of their environment.
According to MacIver, “the term accommodation refers
particularly to the process on which man attains a sense of
harmony with his environments.
Besides this, as a process, accommodation is the sequence of
steps by which persons are reconciled to changed
conditions of life through the formation of the changed
conditions themselves.
Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to
describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.
Accommodation is the process by which the individuals
and groups make the necessary internal adjustments to
social situation which have been created by competition
and conflict.
Accommodation is associated with the social order that is
fixed and established in custom and the mores.
Assimilation implies a more thorough going
transformation of the personality – transformation
which takes place gradually under the influence
of social contacts of the most concrete and intimate
sort.