INTRODUCTION

• This module presents an introduction to the NDT method of

ultrasonic testing.

• Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound energy to conduct

examinations and make measurements.

• Ultrasonic examinations can be conducted on a wide variety of

material forms including castings, forgings, welds, and composites.

• A considerable amount of information about the part being

examined can be collected, such as the presence of discontinuities,
part or coating thickness; and acoustical properties can often be
correlated to certain properties of the material.
TABLE OF CONTENT

• Applications
• Basic Principles of sound generation
• Pulse echo and through transmission testing
• Inspection applications
• Equipment
• Transducers
• Instrumentation
• Reference Standards
• Data presentation
• Advantages and Limitations
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND
• Sound is produced by a vibrating body and travels in the form of a wave.

• Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the particles that make up the material.

• The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of the wave (vibrations or cycles completed in a certain period of
time).

• Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be detected by the human ear.

• The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest determines its wavelength (λ).

• The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of one complete wavelength is the same amount of time it takes the
source to execute one complete vibration.

• The sound wavelength is inversely proportional to its frequency. (λ = 1/f)

• Several wave modes of vibration are used in ultrasonic inspection. The most common are longitudinal, shear, and Rayleigh
(surface) waves.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND (CONT.)

• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light waves in that they can
be reflected, refracted, and focused.

• Reflection and refraction occurs when sound waves interact with

interfaces of differing acoustic properties.

• In solid materials, the vibrational energy can be split into different

wave modes when the wave encounters an interface at an angle
other than 90 degrees.

• Ultrasonic reflections from the presence of discontinuities or

geometric features enables detection and location.

• The velocity of sound in a given material is constant and can only

be altered by a change in the mode of energy.
ULTRASOUND GENERATION

Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.

A piezoelectric element in the
transducer converts electrical
energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and vice
versa.

The transducer is capable of both

transmitting and receiving sound energy.
PRINCIPLES OF ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

• Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material where they travel in a

straight line and at a constant speed until they encounter a surface.

• At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is reflected and some is

transmitted.

• The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can be detected and

provides information about the size of the reflector.

• The travel time of the sound can be measured and this provides
information on the distance that the sound has traveled.
TEST TECHNIQUES

• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method, and inspections can

be accomplished in a number of different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into three primary
classifications.
• Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
• Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
• Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test article)

Each of these techniques will be discussed briefly in the following slides.

 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy and the
same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy (an echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the surfaces of
the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, which
provides the inspector information about the size and the location of
features that reflect the sound. f

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
0 2 4 6 8 10
plate
UT Instrument Screen
 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo (Cont.)

Digital display showing

signal generated from
sound reflecting off back
surface.

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector midway
through material, with lower
amplitude back surface
reflector.

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one side of the
material is possible, and it allows the location of reflectors to be precisely
determined.
Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

• Two transducers located on opposing sides of 11

the test specimen are used. One transducer T R

acts as a transmitter, the other as a receiver.

• Discontinuities in the sound path will result in a T R
partial or total loss of sound being transmitted 2
and be indicated by a decrease in the received
signal amplitude.
11
• Through transmission is useful in detecting
discontinuities that are not good reflectors, and
when signal strength is weak. It does not 2

provide depth information.

0 2 4 6 8 10
Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal due
to presence of a
discontinuity in the
sound field.
Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam

• In normal beam testing, the sound beam is

introduced into the test article at 90 degree to
the surface.
• In angle beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at some angle
other than 90.
• The choice between normal and angle beam
inspection usually depends on two
considerations:
- The orientation of the feature of interest –
the sound should be directed to produce
the largest reflection from the feature.
- Obstructions on the surface of the part that
must be worked around.
Test Techniques – Contact Vs Immersion

• To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air between the
transducer and the test article must be removed. This is referred to as
coupling.
• In contact testing (shown on the previous slides) a couplant such as water,
oil or a gel is applied between the transducer and the part.
• In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a water
bath. This arrangement allows better movement of the transducer while
maintaining consistent coupling.
• With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the part is seen
in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation is the same for the two
techniques.

1 2
IP 1 IP 2 IP = Initial Pulse
FWE FWE FWE = Front Wall
Echo
BWE BWE DE = Defect Echo
DE BWE = Back Wall
Echo

Defect 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
INSPECTION APPLICATIONS

Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing may be employed

include:
• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)
• Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
• Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively joined and brazed
components
• Estimation of void content in composites and plastics
• Measurement of case hardening depth in steels
• Estimation of grain size in metals

On the following slides are examples of some common applications of

ultrasonic inspection.
 THICKNESS GAUGING
Ultrasonic thickness gauging is routinely Applications include piping
utilized in the petrochemical and utility systems, storage and
industries to determine various degrees of containment facilities, and
corrosion/erosion. pressure vessels.
FLAW DETECTION – DE-LAMINATIONS
Contact, pulse-echo inspection for de-laminations on 36” rolled beam.

Signal showing multiple back surface

echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate de-laminations

in the member.
FLAW DETECTION IN WELDS

• One of the most widely used

methods of inspecting weldments
is ultrasonic inspection.
• Full penetration groove welds lend
themselves readily to angle beam
shear wave examination.
EQUIPMENT

Equipment for ultrasonic testing is very diversified. Proper selection is

important to insure accurate inspection data as desired for specific
applications.
In general, there are three basic components that comprise an ultrasonic
test system:
- Instrumentation
- Transducers
- Calibration Standards
TRANSDUCERS

• Transducers are manufactured in a variety of forms, shapes and sizes

for varying applications.
• Transducers are categorized in a number of ways which include:
- Contact or immersion
- Single or dual element
- Normal or angle beam
• In selecting a transducer for a given application, it is important to
choose the desired frequency, bandwidth, size, and in some cases
focusing which optimizes the inspection capabilities.
CONTACT TRANSDUCERS

Contact transducers are designed

to withstand rigorous use, and
usually have a wear plate on the
bottom surface to protect the
piezoelectric element from contact
with the surface of the test article.

Many incorporate ergonomic

designs for ease of grip while
scanning along the surface.
CONTACT TRANSDUCERS (CONT.)

• Contact transducers are available with

two piezoelectric crystals in one
housing. These transducers are called
dual element transducers.

• One crystal acts as a transmitter, the

other as a receiver.

• This arrangement improves near

surface resolution because the second
transducer does not need to complete
a transmit function before listening for
echoes.

• Dual elements are commonly

employed in thickness gauging of thin
materials.
CONTACT TRANSDUCERS (CONT.)

• A way to improve near surface resolution

with a single element transducer is
through the use of a delay line.
• Delay line transducers have a plastic piece
that is a sound path that provides a time
delay between the sound generation and
reception of reflected energy.
• Interchangeable pieces make it possible to
configure the transducer with insulating
wear caps or flexible membranes that
conform to rough surfaces.
• Common applications include thickness
gauging and high temperature
measurements.
TRANSDUCERS (CONT.)

• Angle beam transducers incorporate

wedges to introduce a refracted shear
wave into a material.

• The incident wedge angle is used with

the material velocity to determine the
desired refracted shear wave according
to Snell’s Law)

• Transducers can use fixed or variable

wedge angles.

• Common application is in weld

examination.
TRANSDUCERS (CONT.)

• Immersion transducers are designed to

transmit sound whereby the transducer
and test specimen are immersed in a
liquid coupling medium (usually water).

• Immersion transducers are

manufactured with planar, cylindrical or
spherical acoustic lenses (focusing lens).
INSTRUMENTATION

• Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased to satisfy specific inspection

needs, some users may purchase general purpose equipment to fulfill
a number of inspection applications.

• Test equipment can be classified in a number of different ways, this

may include portable or stationary, contact or immersion, manual or
automated.

• Further classification of instruments commonly divides them into four

general categories: D-meters, Flaw detectors, Industrial and special
application.
INSTRUMENTATION (CONT.)

• D-meters or digital thickness

gauge instruments provide the
user with a digital (numeric)
readout.
• They are designed primarily for
corrosion/erosion inspection
applications.

• Some instruments provide the user with both a digital readout and a
display of the signal. A distinct advantage of these units is that they
allow the user to evaluate the signal to ensure that the digital
measurements are of the desired features.
INSTRUMENTATION (CONT.)

• Flaw detectors are instruments

designed primarily for the inspection
of components for defects.

• However, the signal can be evaluated

to obtain other information such as
material thickness values.

• Both analog and digital display.

• Offer the user options of gating

horizontal sweep and amplitude
threshold.
INSTRUMENTATION (CONT.)

• Industrial flaw detection

instruments, provide users with
more options than standard flaw
detectors.
• May be modulated units allowing
users to tailor the instrument for
their specific needs.
• Generally, not as portable as
standard flaw detectors.
INSTRUMENTATION (CONT.)
• Immersion ultrasonic scanning
systems are used for automated
data acquisition and imaging.
• They integrate an immersion tank,
ultrasonic instrumentation, a
scanning bridge, and computer
controls.
• The signal strength and/or the time-
of-flight of the signal is measured
for every point in the scan plan.
• The value of the data is plotted
using colors or shades of gray to
produce detailed images of the
surface or internal features of a
component.
IMAGES OF A QUARTER PRODUCED WITH AN
ULTRASONIC IMMERSION SCANNING SYSTEM

Gray scale image produced using Gray scale image produced using the
the sound reflected from the front sound reflected from the back
surface of the coin surface of the coin (inspected from
“heads” side)
CALIBRATION STANDARDS

Calibration is a operation of configuring the ultrasonic test equipment to

known values. This provides the inspector with a means of comparing
test signals to known measurements.

Calibration standards come in a wide variety of material types, and

configurations due to the diversity of inspection applications.

Calibration standards are typically manufactured from materials of the

same acoustic properties as those of the test articles.

The following slides provide examples of specific types of standards.

CALIBRATION STANDARDS (CONT.)

Thickness calibration standards may be

flat or curved for pipe and tubing
applications, consisting of simple
variations in material thickness.
ASTM Distance/Area
Amplitude
Distance/Area Amplitude standards
utilize flat bottom holes or side drilled
holes to establish known reflector size
with changes in sound path form the
entry surface.
NAVSHIPS
CALIBRATION STANDARDS (CONT.)
There are also calibration standards for
use in angle beam inspections when
flaws are not parallel to entry surface. IIW

These standards utilized side drilled

holes, notches, and geometric
configuration to establish time distance
and amplitude relationships.

DSC DC
Rhompas

SC
ASME Pipe Sec. XI
QUALIFICATION STANDARDS
Qualification standards differ AWS Resolution DC-dB Accuracy
from calibration standards in
that their use is for purposes
of varying proper equipment
operation and qualification of
equipment use for specific
codes and standards.

IOW Beam Profile

DATA PRESENTATION

• Information from ultrasonic testing can be presented in a number of

differing formats.

• Three of the more common formats include:

• A-scan

• B-scan

• C-scan

These three formats will be discussed in the next few slides.

DATA PRESENTATION - A-SCAN

Signal Amplitude
• A-scan presentation displays the
amount of received ultrasonic energy
as a function of time.

• Relative discontinuity size can be

estimated by comparing the signal Time
amplitude to that from a known
reflector.

• Reflector depth can be determined Signal Amplitude

by the position of the signal on the
horizontal sweep.

Time
DATA PRESENTATION - B-SCAN

• B-scan presentations display a profile view

(cross-sectional) of a test specimen.

• Only the reflector depth in the cross-

section and the linear dimensions can be
determined.

• A limitation to this display technique is that

reflectors may be masked by larger
reflectors near the surface.
DATA PRESENTATION - C-SCAN
• The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of the test specimen
and discontinuities.
• C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data acquisition
system, such as in immersion scanning.
• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when depth
determination is desired.

Photo of a C-Scan Image of

Composite Internal Features
Component
ADVANTAGE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING

• Sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other

methods.

• Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo technique is used.

• High accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and

shape.

• Minimal part preparation required.

• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.

• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.

• Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw

detection.
LIMITATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING

• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy
into test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or
not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse-grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low
sound transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and
characterization of flaws.