CHAPTER 7

SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTIONS

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

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Opening Example
You read about opinion polls in newspapers, magazines, and on the Web every
day. These polls are based on sample surveys. Have you heard of sampling
and nonsampling errors? It is good to be aware of such errors while reading
these opinion poll results. Sound sampling methods are essential for opinion
poll results to be valid and to minimize effects of such errors.

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7.1 Sampling Distribution, Sampling Error, and Nonsampling
Errors
 Population Probability Distribution
 Sampling Distribution

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Population Probability Distribution
Definition
The population probability distribution is the probability
distribution of the population data.

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Population Probability Distribution
Suppose there are only five students in an advanced statistics
class and the midterm scores of these five students are

70 78 80 80 95

Let x denote the score of a student.

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Table 7.1 Population Frequency and Relative Frequency
Distributions

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Table 7.2 Population Probability Distribution

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Sampling Distribution
Definition
The probability distribution of x is called its sampling
distribution. It lists the various values that x
can assume
and the probability of each value of x.

In general, the probability distribution of a sample statistic is

called its sampling distribution.

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Sampling Distribution
Reconsider the population of midterm scores of five students
given in Table 7.1.

Consider all possible samples of three scores each that can

be selected, without replacement, from that population.

The total number of possible samples is

5! 5  4  3  2 1
5 C3    10
3!(5  3)! 3  2  1  2  1

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Sampling Distribution
Suppose we assign the letters A, B, C, D, and E to the scores
of the five students so that
A = 70, B = 78, C = 80, D = 80, E = 95

Then, the 10 possible samples of three scores each are

ABC, ABD, ABE, ACD, ACE, ADE, BCD, BCE, BDE, CDE

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Table 7.3 All Possible Samples and Their Means When the
Sample Size Is 3

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Table 7.4 Frequency and Relative Frequency Distributions ofx
When the Sample Size Is 3

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Table 7.5 Sampling Distribution ofx When the Sample Size Is 3

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Sampling Error and Nonsampling Errors
Definition
Sampling error is the difference between the value of a
sample statistic and the value of the corresponding
population parameter. In the case of the mean,

Sampling error = x

assuming that the sample is random and no nonsampling
error has been made.

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 Sampling Error and Nonsampling Errors
 Definition
 The errors that occur in the collection, recording, and
tabulation of data are called nonsampling errors.

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 Reasons for the Occurrence of Nonsampling Errors
 1. If a sample is nonrandom (and, hence, most likely
nonrepresentative), the sample results may be too different
from the census results.

 2. The questions may be phrased in such a way that they

are not fully understood by the members of the sample or
population.

 3. The respondents may intentionally give false information

in response to some sensitive questions.

 4. The poll taker may make a mistake and enter a wrong

number in the records or make an error while entering the
data on a computer.

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 Example 7-1
 Reconsider the population of five scores given in Table 7.1.
Suppose one sample of three scores is selected from this
population, and this sample includes the scores 70, 80, and
95. Find the sampling error.

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Example 7-1: Solution
70  78  80  80  95
  80.60
5
70  80  95
x  81.67
3
Sampling error  x    81.67  80.60  1.07

That is, the mean score estimated from the sample is 1.07
higher than the mean score of the population.
Note that this difference occurred due to chance—that is,
because we used a sample instead of the population.

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Sampling Error and Nonsampling Errors
Now suppose, when we select the sample of three scores, we
mistakenly record the second score as 82 instead of 80.

As a result, we calculate the sample mean as

70  82  95
x  82.33
3

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Sampling Error and Nonsampling Errors
The difference between this sample mean and the population
mean is

x    82.33  80.60  1.73

This difference does not represent the sampling error.

Only 1.07 of this difference is due to the sampling error.

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Sampling Error and Nonsampling Errors
The remaining portion represents the nonsampling error.
It is equal to 1.73 – 1.07 = .66
It occurred due to the error we made in recording the second
score in the sample.

Also, Nonsampling error  Incorrect x  Correct x

 82.33  81.67  .66

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Figure 7.1 Sampling and Nonsampling Errors

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 7.2 Mean and Standard Deviation of x
 Definition
 The mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution
 of x are called the mean and standard deviation of x
 and are denoted by x and x , respectively.

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 Mean and Standard Deviation of x
 Mean of the Sampling Distribution of x
 The mean of the sampling distribution of is x
always equal to the mean of the population. Thus,

x  

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 Mean and Standard Deviation of x
 Standard Deviation of the Sampling Distribution of x
 The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x
is

x 
n
 where σ is the standard deviation of the population and n is
the sample size. This formula is used when n /N ≤ .05,
where N is the population size.

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Mean and Standard Deviation of x
If the condition n /N ≤ .05 is not satisfied, we use the
following formula to calculate x :

 N n
x 
n N 1

where the factor N  n is called the finite population

correction factor. N  1

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Two Important Observations
1. The spread of the sampling distribution of x is smaller
than the spread of the corresponding population
distribution, i.e.

x x
2. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x
decreases as the sample size increases.

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 Example 7-2
 The mean wage for all 5000 employees who work at a large
 company is $27.50 and the standard deviation is $3.70.
 Let x be the mean wage per hour for a random sample of
 certain employees selected from this company. Find the
 mean and standard deviation of xfor a sample size of

 (a) 30 (b) 75 (c) 200

x  

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Example 7-2: Solution
(a) N = 5000, μ = $27.50, σ = $3.70.
In this case, n/N = 30/5000 = .006 < .05.

 x    $27.50
 3.70
x    $.676
n 30

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Example 7-2: Solution
(b) N = 5000, μ = $27.50, σ = $3.70.
In this case, n/N = 75/5000 = .015 < .05.

 x    $27.50
 3.70
x    $.427
n 75

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Example 7-2: Solution
(c) In this case, n = 200 and
n/N = 200/5000 = .04, which is less than.05.

 x    $27.50
 3.70
x    $.262
n 200

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7.3 Shape of the Sampling Distribution of x
The shape of the sampling distribution of x relates to the
following two cases:

 The population from which samples are drawn has a

normal distribution.
 The population from which samples are drawn does not
have a normal distribution.

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 Sampling From a Normally Distributed Population
 If the population from which the samples are drawn is
normally distributed with mean μ and standard deviation σ,
then the sampling distribution of the sample mean, x , will
also be normally distributed with the following mean and
standard deviation, regardless of the sample size:


 x   and  x 
n

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Figure 7.2 Population Distribution and Sampling Distributions ofx

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Figure 7.2 Population Distribution and Sampling Distributions ofx

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Example 7-3
According to the 2015 Physician Compensation Report by
Medscape (a subsidiary of WebMD), American internal
medicine physicians earned an average of $196,000 in
2014. Suppose that the 2014 earnings of all American
internal medicine physicians are approximately normally
distributed with a mean of $196,000 and a standard
deviation of $20,000. Letx be the mean 2014 earnings
of a random sample of American internal medicine
physicians. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of x
and describe the shape of its sampling distribution when
the sample size is
 (a) 16 (b) 50 (c) 1000

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Example 7-3: Solution
(a) μ = $196,000 and σ = $20,000.

and

Because the 2014 earnings of all American internal medicine

physicians are approximately normally distributed, the
sampling distribution ofx for samples of 16 such physicians is
also approximately normally distributed.

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Figure 7.3

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Example 7-3: Solution
(b)

and

Because the 2014 earnings of all American internal medicine

physicians are approximately normally distributed, the
sampling distribution ofx for samples of 16 such physicians is
also approximately normally distributed.

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Figure 7.4

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Example 7-3: Solution
(c)
and

Because the 2014 earnings of all American internal medicine

physicians are approximately normally distributed, the
sampling distribution of
x for samples of 16 such physicians is
also approximately normally distributed.

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Figure 7.5

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

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 Sampling from a Population That Is Not Normally Distributed
 Central Limit Theorem

 According to the central limit theorem, for a large sample

 size, the sampling distribution of x is approximately normal,
 irrespective of the shape of the population distribution. The
 mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x
 are 
 x   and  x 
n

 The sample size is usually considered to be large if n ≥ 30.

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Figure 7.6 Population Distribution and Sampling Distributions ofx

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Figure 7.6 Population Distribution and Sampling Distributions ofx

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

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 Example 7-4
 The mean rent paid by all tenants in a small city is $1550
with a standard deviation of $225. However, the
population distribution of rents for all tenants in this city is
skewed to the right. Calculate the mean and standard x
deviation of and describe the shape of its sampling
distribution when the sample size is
 (a) 30 (b) 100

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Example 7-4: Solution
(a) Let x be the mean rent paid by a sample of 30 tenants.

 x    $1550
 225
x    $41.079
n 30

Although the population distribution of rents paid by all tenants

is not normal, the sample size is large (n ≥ 30). Hence, by the
central limit theorem, the shape of the sampling distribution of

x is approximately normal.

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Figure 7.7

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Example 7-4: Solution
(b) Let x be the mean rent paid by a sample of 100 tenants.
 x    $1550
 225
x    $22.500
n 100
Although the population distribution of rents paid by all tenants
is not normal, the sample size is large (n ≥ 30). Hence, by the
central limit theorem, the shape of the sampling distribution of
x is approximately normal.

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Figure 7.8

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7.4 Applications of the Sampling Distribution of x
1. If we take all possible samples of the same (large) size
from a population and calculate the mean for each of these
samples, then about 68.26% of the sample means will be
within one standard deviation of the population mean.

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Figure 7.9 P (   1 x  x    1 x )

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Applications of the Sampling Distribution of x
2. If we take all possible samples of the same (large) size
from a population and calculate the mean for each of these
samples, then about 95.44% of the sample means will be
within two standard deviations of the population mean.

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Figure 7.10 P (   2 x  x    2 x )

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Applications of the Sampling Distribution ofx
3. If we take all possible samples of the same (large) size
from a population and calculate the mean for each of these
samples, then about 99.74% of the sample means will be
within three standard deviations of the population mean.

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Figure 7.11 P (   3 x  x    3 x )

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Example 7-5
Assume that the weights of all packages of a certain brand of
cookies are normally distributed with a mean of 32 ounces
and a standard deviation of .3 ounce. Find the probability
that the mean weight, , of a random sample of 20
packages of this brand of cookies will be between 31.8 and
31.9 ounces.

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Example 7-5: Solution

 x    32 ounces
 .3
x    .06708204 ounce
n 20

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z Value for a Value of x
The z value for a value of x is calculated as

x 
z 
x

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Example 7-5: Solution
For x = 31.8:
z
31.8  32
 2.98
.06708204

For x = 31.9:
z
31.9  32
 1.49
.06708204

P(31.8 < x < 31.9) = P(-2.98 < z < -1.49)

= P(z < -1.49) – P(z < -2.98)
= .0681 – .0014 = .0667

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Figure 7.12

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Example 7-6
According to Moebs Services Inc., an individual checking
account at major U.S. banks costs the banks between $350
and $450 per year. Suppose that the current average cost of
all checking accounts at major U.S. banks is $400 per year
with a standard deviation of $30. Let x be the current
average annual cost of a random sample of 225 individual
checking account at major banks in America.

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Example 7-6
(a) What is the probability that the average annual cost of
the checking accounts in this sample is within $4 of the
population mean?

(b) What is the probability that the average annual cost of

the checking accounts in this sample is less than the
population mean by $2.70 or more?

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Example 7-6: Solution
μ = $400 and σ = $30. The shape of the probability
distribution of the population is unknown. However, the
sampling distribution ofx is approximately normal
because the sample is large (n > 30).

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Example 7-6: Solution
(a)

P($396 ≤ x ≤ $404) = P(-2.00 ≤ z ≤ 2.00)

= .9772 – .0228
= .9544

Therefore, the probability that the average annual cost of the

225 checking accounts in this sample is within $4 of the
population mean is .9544.

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Figure 7.13 P($ 396 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ $ 404)

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Example 7-6: Solution
(b) 𝑥 − 𝜇 397.30 − 400
For 𝑥=397.30 ; 𝑧 = = =− 1.35
𝜎𝑥 2.00

P( x ≤ $397.50) = P (z ≤ -1.35) = .0885

Thus, the probability that the average annual cost of the

checking accounts in this sample is less than the population
mean by $2.70 or more is .0885.

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Figure 7.14 P(𝒙 ≤ $ 397.30)

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 7.5 Population and Sample Proportions; and Mean,
Standard Deviation, and Shape of the Sampling Distribution
of p̂
The population and sample proportions, denoted by p
and p̂, respectively, are calculated as
X x
p and pˆ 
N n
where
N = total number of elements in the population
n = total number of elements in the sample
X = number of elements in the population that possess a
specific characteristic
x = number of elements in the sample that possess a
specific characteristic

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Example 7-7
Suppose a total of 789,654 families live in a city and
563,282 of them own homes. A sample of 240 families is
selected from this city, and 158 of them own homes. Find
the proportion of families who own homes in the population
and in the sample.

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Example 7-7: Solution

X 563,282
p   .71
N 789,654
x 158
ˆ
p   .66
n 240

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The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Proportion,p̂
 Sampling Distribution of p̂
 Mean and Standard Deviation of p̂
 Shape of the Sampling Distribution of p̂

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The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Proportion, p̂
Definition

The probability distribution of the sample proportion, p̂ , is

called its sampling distribution. It gives various values
that p̂ can assume and their probabilities.

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Example 7-8
Boe Consultant Associates has five employees. Table 7.6
gives the names of these five employees and information
concerning their knowledge of statistics.

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Table 7.6 Information on the Five Employees of Boe Consultant
Associates

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Example 7-8: Solution
If we define the population proportion, p, as the proportion
of employees who know statistics, then

p = 3 / 5 = .60

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Example 7-8: Solution
Now, suppose we draw all possible samples of three employees
each and compute the proportion of employees, for each
sample, who know statistics.

5! 5  4  3  2 1
Total number of samples  5C3    10
3!(5  3)! 3  2  1 2  1

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Table 7.7 All Possible Samples of Size 3 and the Value ofp̂ for
Each Sample

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Table 7.8 Frequency and Relative Frequency Distribution ofp̂
When the Sample Size Is 3

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Table 7.9 Sampling Distribution ofp̂ When the Sample Size Is 3

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Mean and Standard Deviation ofp̂
Mean of the Sample Proportion
The mean of the sample proportion, p̂ , is denoted by  p̂
and is equal to the population proportion, p. Thus,

 pˆ  p

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Mean and Standard Deviation of p̂
Standard Deviation of the Sample Proportion
The standard deviation of the sample proportion, p̂ , is
denoted by  p̂
and is given by the formula

pq
 pˆ 
n
where p is the population proportion, q = 1 – p , and n is the
sample size. This formula is used when n/N ≤ .05, where N is
the population size.

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Mean and Standard Deviation of p̂
If n /N > .05, then  p̂ is calculated as:

pq N n
 pˆ 
n N 1
N n
where the factor is called the finite population
N 1
correction factor.

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Shape of the Sampling Distribution ofp̂
Central Limit Theorem for Sample Proportion

According to the central limit theorem, the sampling

distribution of p̂ is approximately normal for a sufficiently
large sample size. In the case of proportion, the sample
size is considered to be sufficiently large if np and nq are
both greater than 5 – that is, if

np > 5 and nq > 5

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Example 7-9
According to a New York Times/CBS News poll, 55% of
adults polled said that owning a home is a very important
part of the American Dream. Assume that this result is true
for the current population of American adults. Let p̂ be the
proportion of American adults in a random sample of 2000
who will say that owning a home is a very important part of
the American Dream. Find the mean and standard deviation
of p̂ and describe the shape of its sampling distribution.

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 Example 7-9: Solution

 p̂
 p̂

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Example 7-9: Solution
 np and nq are both greater than 5.

 Therefore, the sampling distribution of p̂ is approximately

normal (by the central limit theorem) with a mean of .55
and a standard deviation of .0111, as shown in Figure 7.15.

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Figure 7.15

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7.6 Applications of the Sampling Distribution of p̂
When we conduct a study, we usually take only one
sample and make all decisions or inferences on the basis
of
the results of that one sample. We use the concepts of the
mean, standardp̂deviation, and shape of the sampling
p̂ of
distribution to determine the probability that the
value of computed from one sample falls within a given
interval.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Example 7-10
In a recent Pew Research Center nationwide telephone
survey of American adults, 75% of adults said that college
education has become too expensive for most people.
Suppose that this result is true for the current population
of American adults. Let p̂ be the proportion in a random
sample of 1400 adult Americans who will hold the said
opinion. Find the probability that 76.5% to 78% of adults
in this sample will hold this opinion.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Example 7-10: Solution

We can infer from the central limit theorem that the sampling
distribution of p̂ is approximately normal.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Figure 7.16 ^ <.78)
P(.765< 𝒑

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
z Value for a Value of p̂
The z value for a value of p̂ is calculated as

pp
z 
 p

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Example 7-10: Solution
 For p̂ = .765: .765 −.75
𝑧= =1.30
.01157275
 For p̂ = .78: .78 −.75
𝑧= =2.59
.01157275

 P(.765 < p̂ < .78) = P(1.30 < z < 2.59)

= .9952 – .9032
= .0920

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Example 7-10: Solution
Thus, the probability that 76.5% to 78% of American
adults in a random sample of 1400 will say that college
education has become too expensive for most people
is .0920.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Figure 7.17 ^ <.78)
P(.765< 𝒑

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Example 7-11
Maureen Webster, who is running for mayor in a large city,
claims that she is favored by 53% of all eligible voters of
that city. Assume that this claim is true. What is the
probability that in a random sample of 400 registered
voters taken from this city, less than 49% will favor
Maureen Webster?

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Example 7-11: Solution
n =400, p = .53, and q = 1 – p = 1 - .53 = .47

pq (.53)(.47)
 p  p  .53 and  pˆ    .02495496
n 400

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Example 7-11: Solution

.49  .53
z  1.60
.02495496

P( p̂ < .49) = P(z < -1.60) = .0548

Hence, the probability that less than 49% of the voters in

a random sample of 400 will favor Maureen Webster
is .0548.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Figure 7.18 P ( pˆ  .49)

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 9/E

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.