Introduction

to
Heat Transfer
 Heat Energy & Heat Transfer
• In this lecture, we are going to study about Heat Energy & HT
• So, let us see first, What is Energy ? Energy is the capacity to do
work. Some examples of energies are mechanical energy, chemical
energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy and so on
• And, What is Heat Energy? It is a form of energy in transit, the
driving force for which, is the temp difference
• It means, whenever there is temp difference between the two
bodies, heat energy will flow. When they attain equilibrium of temp
, heat flow will stop
• In the study of Heat Transfer: We are concerned, as to HOW and
AT WHAT RATE heat transfer takes place. HT is based on the Law
of Thermodynamics, which states that heat flows from a body at
higher temp to a body at lower temp. Conversely, heat can not
flow from a body at lower temp to a body at higher temp, unless &
until some external device, like heat pump, is employed
 Why should we study Heat Transfer ?
• You will not find a single field of engineering , where
knowledge of Heat Transfer is not applied.
• Knowledge of HT is always required while designing an
eqpt. Let us take up some examples, branch-wise
Mech Engg: Engines, R &A/C, use of insulations,
cooling/heating of bodies for heat treatment etc
Elect Engg: Cooling of motors, transformers, current
carrying wires, etc
Chemical Engg: We have to take care of energy produced
during chemical reactions, heating or cooling of chemicals
for reactions to take place, etc
Nuclear Engg: Conversion of fission/fusion energy to
electricity, cooling of nuclear reactors etc
 Importance of Heat Transfer
Electronics: Cooling of ICs, electronic devices etc
Computer Engg: Cooling of chips, electronic cct, etc
Civil Engg: Curing of cement in buildings/dams etc
Hydraulics: Generation of electricity from hydraulic
energy from dams
Bio-technology: Ripening of fruits, processing of
biomaterial
Space Engg: Space applications/ cooling of space vehicles
Aircraft Engg: Aircraft applications
You name an equipment and you find that the knowledge
of heat transfer is required
 Modes of Heat Transfer

 Conduction: Flow of heat energy by direct contact

& through free electrons e.g. heat flow through solids

 Convection: Transfer of heat energy by fluid flowing

over a surface e.g. heat transfer from engine surface
to surrounding atmospheric air

 Radiation: Flow of heat energy without any

intervening medium e.g. energy of sun reaching the
earth
 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
Rate of heat transfer by conduction (through a solid)
in a given direction is proportional to the area normal
to the direction of heat flow and the temp gradient
in that direction. Mathematically ;
T dT
Q A Watt OR Q  kA Watt ( J / s)
x dx
Where Q = heat flow rate, Watt (J/s)
A = area normal to heat flow direction,m2
k = conductivity of material (property), W/mK
dT/dx = temp gradient in x direction
ΔT = temp difference across Δx
Δx = thickness of material in heat flow direction
Conduction
dT
Q   kA
dx
(T1  T 2 )
Q  kA
( x1  x 2 )
(T1  T2 )
Q  kA
( x2  x1 )
T
Q  kA Watts
x

Heat Flux q=Q/A, W/m2

 Thermal Conductivities
Substance Thermal Conductivity:
k (W/mK)
Copper 390

Aluminum 240
Brass 110
Iron 79

Metals have high thermal conductivity

 Thermal Conductivities
•Most electrical Substance Thermal
insulators have Conductivity:
low thermal k (W / m K)
conductivity.
Glass 0.84
•Air is a good
insulator, except
Water 0.60
that large air
spaces allow
Wood 0.10
heat flow by
convection
Air 0.023
 Variation of Thermal Conductivity
1. It is the property of material; defined as ability
of material to conduct heat through it.
2. Thermal conductivity in decreasing order :
Metals » Non-metallic Solids » Liquids » Gases
3. Higher conductivity in metals is due to free
electrons in their outer orbits
4. k depends on grain structure. When k is different
in different directions (kx , ky , kz ), material is
known as anisotropic. When k is constant in all
directions, it is called Isotropic.
5. k is strongly dependent on temp; k=ko(1+αT)
HEAT CONVECTION
 Heat Convection
When a fluid flows over a solid body or surface and
temp of the fluid and solid surface are different, heat
transfer between the solid surface and fluid takes
place due to motion of fluid relative to the surface.

If the fluid motion is artificially induced, then heat

transfer is said to be by FORCED convection.

If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy effects

resulting from density difference caused due to temp
difference in the fluid, heat transfer is said to be by
FREE or NATURAL convection
 Convection Ts > T∞
Rate of heat transfer by T∞
convection from a surface
to a fluid or vice versa ,
flowing along it is equal to Fluid

the product of temp difference A h

between surface and the free Ts
stream of the fluid, the area of
the surface normal to the
direction of heat flow and a Q
quantity h called convective
heat transfer coefficient.
Mathematically, Q = hA(Ts - T∞); Watt
 h is not a property of fluid or surface,
But it depends on properties of the fluid and
vital dimensions of the surface
HEAT RADIATION
 Radiation
All bodies continuously emit energy if their temp is
above zero absolute (0K) and energy thus emitted
is called thermal radiation.
Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves and
do not require any medium for propagation.

Thermal radiation is a surface phenomenon.

Theories of Thermal Radiation
1. Wave/Maxwell’s Classical Theory : Propagation by
electromagnetic waves
2. Quantum/ Planck’s Theory: Propagation by quanta
possessing certain amount of energy
 Stefan Boltzmann’s Law of Radiation
Thermal radiation emitted by a body is proportional
to the Fourth Power of its absolute temp.

Mathematically;
q ∞ T4 W/m2;
Q = σAT4 W; where σ is Stefan Boltzmann’s
constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4 )

Q =A1Є1σ (T14 –T24)

Numerical Problem
Q1: Air at 20°C blows over a 50cm x 75cm hot plate
at 250°C. The film heat transfer coefficient is
25 W/m2K. 300 W is lost from the plate surface by
radiation. Calculate heat transfer rate and other side
plate temp. Thermal conductivity of the plate
material is 43 W/mK. The plate is 2cm thick.
Qr=300W
Q=? Air at 20°C Qc=?

Q=Qc+Qr
2cm
Qc=hA(T1 – Ta) h=25
Q=kA(ΔT/Δx)
T1 =250°C
=kA(T2-T1)/(Δx) 50cm
k=43
T2 = ? 75cm
Q=2456W; T2=253°C Q
 Electrical Analogy
Electrical Heat Energy
Energy
What flows? Electrons Heat energy
through electrons
Driving Voltage Diff, Temp Diff, ΔT
Potential ΔV
Flow Current, I Heat Transfer Rate,
Q
Resistance to ρ, A, L of R, Thermal
flow conductor Resistance
 Electrical Analogy
As per Ohm’s Law, I = ΔV/R

Similarly, Heat Flow Rate, Q = ΔT/R = C.ΔT;

where R is thermal resistance & C conductance

Conductive Resistance:
T T T
Q  kA  
x x R
kA
x
Hence , R conductive 
kA
 Electrical Analogy
Convective Resistance:

T T
Q  hAT2  T   
1 R
hA
1
Hence , Rconvective 
hA
Heat Transfer In Composite Structures
Resistance In Series
Q=ΔT/R
=(T1-T2)/R1 k1 k2 k3
Q T1 T2 T3 T4
=(T2-T3)/R2
R1 R2
=(T3-T4)/R3 R3
b1 b2 b3

On adding up;
T1-T4=Q(R1+R2+R3) OR Q=(T1-T4)/(R1+R2+R3)

Q=ΔT/R; hence R=R1+R2+R3

R1=b1/k1A; R2=b2/k2A; R3=b3/k3A
Heat Transfer In Composite Structures
T1
Resistance In Parallel T2
Q1 R1 Q1
Q1 = (T1-T2)/R1
k1
Q2 = (T1-T2)/R2
Q3 = (T1-T2)/R3
Q Q2 R2 Q2 Q

On adding;
k2
Q=Q1+Q2+Q3

Q3 R3 Q3
=(T1-T2)*(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)
= ΔT*1/R; k3
Hence 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 b
Q2. In a furnace, temp of hot gases is 2100°C.
Ambient temp is 40°C. Heat
Tg T1 T2 T∞
flow by radiation from hot gases
to inner surface of the wall is qc2
23kW/m2. Convective heat qc1 Qcond qr2
transfer coeff. between hot gases qr1
and the inner surface of the wall is h1 C h2
12W/m K. Thermal conductance of
2

the wall is 58W/m2K. Heat flow by

radiation from external surface of the wall to
surroundings is 10kW/m2. Temp of inside surface of
the wall is 900°C. For the external surface of the wall,
find surface temp and convective heat transfer
coefficient.

T2 ? h2= ? T2=255.2°C; h2=127.3W/m2K

 Solution:
QC1  h1 A(Tg  T1 )  12x1(2100  900)  14.4kW / m 2
Q  Q C 1  Q r 1  14 . 4  23  37 . 4 kW / m 2
This is the heat conducted through slab .
( T 1  T 2 ) 
Hence Q  C (T 1  T 2 ) 
1
C
( 900  T 2 )
  T 2  255 . 2  C
1
58
Q  Q C 2  Q r 2  37400  Q C 2  10000
Hence Q C 2  27400  h 2 A ( T 2  T  )
2
 h 2  127 . 3 W / m K
Steady State & Unsteady State Heat Transfer

• Steady State Heat Transfer

• Unsteady State Heat Transfer

• Examples
Types of Problems In Heat Transfer
1. Plate/Slab/Wall
2. Tube/Pipe/Cylinder
3. Sphere

• To increase Heat Transfer Rate

• To decrease Heat Transfer Rate
Lecture 2
General Heat Conduction Equation In Cartesian Coordinates
Consider a small rectangular z
volume of sides δx, δy & δz
parallel to the three axes
in medium, in which temp δz
g
is varying with loc & time. dQx dQx+δx
T

Let T denote the temp at centre x

of this elemental volume. δy
δx
y
Also, let there be internal heat generation at the rate
of g Watt per unit volume (W/m3 ) due to heat source

Let the material be anisotropic implying that thermal

conductivities have values kx , ky & kz in x, y & z
directions respectively
General Heat Conduction Equation
Consider heat is entering and leaving this volume
through its six faces.

Let heat entering the elemental volume per unit time

normal to the area/face δyδz at x be dQx and heat
leaving the volume in the direction normal to the
area δyδz at x+δx be dQx+δx.

As per Fourier’s Law,

heat entering dQx= - kx(δyδz)∂T/∂x

Similarly, heat leaving,

dQx+δx =dQx+ ∂/∂x(dQx)δx
General Heat Conduction Equation
So, net heat flow into the element in x-direction/time;


dQ x  dQ x  dx  dQ x x
x
  T 
   k x yz.  x
x  x 
  T 
 kx  x  y  z
x  x 
General Heat Conduction Equation
Similarly, net heat flow into the element per unit time
in y & z directions respectively are;
  T 
dQ y  dQ y  y   k y  x  y  z and
y  y 
  T 
dQ z  dQ z  z  kz  x  y  z
z  z 
Thus, net heat flow in to the element from all directions
by conduction in certain time δt will be:

   T    T    T 
 kx    k y    k z xyzt
 x  x  y  y  z  z 
General Heat Conduction Equation
Now, internal heat generation in time δt=g.δxδyδzδt

Heat gain by the element from above, will result in

energy storage and will increase its temp.

Let δT be the rise in temp in time δt, the net heat

storage in the element in time δt ;

(mCp ΔT) = ρVCp δT

= ρCp δT δxδyδz
General Heat Conduction Equation
Energy Balance Equation:
Net heat conducted in to the element from all
Directions +Heat generated within the element
= Energy stored in the element

   T    T    T 
 kx    k y    k z xyzt
 x  x  y  y  z  z 
 g.xyzt  C p T .xyz

Dividing the Equation by δxδyδzδt, we get;

 General Heat Conduction Equation
  T    T    T  T
 k x    k y    k z   g  C p
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
This is three dimensional heat conduction equation
in Cartesian Coordinates for anisotropic material for
Unsteady state conditions.
For isotropic material, kx=ky=kz=k constant
 2T  2T  2T g 1 T
   
x 2
y 2
z 2
k  t
k
 Where  is thermal diffusivit y 
C p
General Heat Conduction Equation
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
Fourier’s Equation:  2  2 
x 2
y z  t
2 2 2
T T T g
Poisson’s Equation:  2  2  0
x2 y z k
2 2 2
T T T
Laplace Equation:  2  2 0
x2 y z
Steady State, One Dimensional Equation w/o g:
2
d T
2
o
dx
General Heat Conduction Equation
In Cylindrical Coordinates
By substituting x=r.cosθ; y=r.sinθand z=z, we get
General Heat Conduction Equation in Polar/
Cylindrical Coordinates:
2 2 2
 T 1 T 1  T  T g 1 T
    
2
 r 2 r r r   2
z 2
k  t
 For isotropic material with k  constt
Poisson’s Equation: 1 d  dT  g
r    0
r dr  dr  k
1 d  dT 
Radial heat conduction w/o g: r   0
r dr  dr 
General Heat Conduction Equation
In Spherical Coordinates
Similarly, by substituting x=r.sinθ.cosФ; y= r.sinθsinФ
and z=r.sinθ, we get heat conduction equation in
Spherical Coordinates:
1   2 T  1  T  1 2T g 1 T
r  2 sin   2 2  
r r  r  r sin  
2
  r sin   k  t
2

For isotropic material with k  constt

1 d  2 dT  g
Poisson’s Equation: 2 r  0
r dr  dr  k
1 d  2 dT 
Radial heat conduction w/o g: 2 r 0
r dr  dr 
 Thermal Diffusivity
Thermal Diffusivity is the ratio of thermal conductivity
to heat storage capacity of the material.
k
Denoted by  , it is defined as :   m2 / s
C p
Larger the value of α, faster shall be the heat diffusion
through the material.
Steady state heat conduction does not contain α,
hence temp distr through material is determined by
k only, where as in unsteady state heat conduction,
temp distr is determined by α. (Both by k & ρCp )
Example: Cooking steel utensils having copper bottom
One Dimensional Steady State Heat
Conduction through Slab/Plane Wall
Consider a plane wall of thickness Δx of K
T1
material having Conductivity k with its faces
T
maintained at temp T1 & T2
Steady state, one dimensional T2
Heat conduction eqn will be:
2 Δx
d T
2
0 X=0 X=Δx
dx
Integrating this equation twice;
dT
We have  C1 ..........(1) Slope of Temp Profile
dx
and T  C1 x  C 2 .........(2) Temp Profile
 Heat Conduction through Slab/Plane Wall
Boundary Conditions: (T=C1.x+C2)….(2)
1) At x=0; T=T1 K
2) At x=Δx; T=T2 T1

Applying BC 1), we get T1=C1.0+C2

Hence C2=T1 T2

Applying BC 2), we get Δx

T2=C1.Δx+C2 T2  T1 X=0 X=Δx

Or T2=C1.Δx+T1  C1 
x
Substituting C1 and C 2 in Eqn..(2)
T2  T1
We get T  .x  T1 ...........Temp Distribution
x
Heat Conduction through Slab/Plane Wall
dT
Heat FlowRate Q  kA K
dx T1

dT T2  T1
From Eqn..(1);  C1  T2

dx x Δx

T1  T2  T T
X=0 X=Δx

Hence Q  kA  
x x R
kA
x
Hence Rcond  ..... for Slab
kA
One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow Cylinder L

Consider a hollow cylinder of inner

radius r1 and outer r2 of length L r1 K
r2
of a material having conductivity k. T1
T1>T2
Q T2
Inner surface of cylinder is at
temp T1 and outer at T2

Conduction Equation for one dimensional (radial)

Heat flow (without g) will be:

1 d  dT 
r 0
r dr  dr 
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction
through Hollow Cylinder L

1 d  dT 
Integrating Equation: r 0
r dr  dr  r1 K
r2
T1
d  dT  T1>T2
We have   r 0 Q T2
dr  dr 
dT dT C1
r  C 1 or  .......(1)
dr dr r

On further Integratio n;
We have T  C1 ln r  C 2 .......( 2)
Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder
Boundary Conditions: L
Eqn (2) T=C1.lnr+C2

1) At r=r1; T=T1
r1 K
2) At r=r2; T=T2 r2
T1
Substituting in Eqn ….(2); We have T1>T2
Q T2
T1=C1.lnr1+C2 …..(3)
T2=C1.lnr2+C2 ….(4)
Subtracting eqn (4) from (3) and further substitution;
T2  T1 T2  T1
C1  and C 2  T1  . ln r1
r2 r2
ln ln
r1 r1
Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder
T=C1.lnr+C2 …….(2) L

T2 T1 T2 T1
C1  and C2  T1  .lnr1
r2 r2 r1 K
ln ln r2
r1 r1 T1
T1>T2
Q T2
Substituting values of C1 & C2
in Eqn ….(2); We have
r r
ln ln
r1 T  T1 r1
T T2  T1   T1 OR 
r2 T 2  T1 r2
ln ln
r1 r1
Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder
T  T1
Heat Flow Rate: C 1  2
L
r
ln 2
dT r1
Q   kA
dr
r1 K
dT C1 r2
 .... from Eqn....(1) T1
dr r T1>T2
Q
C1 T2
Therefore , Q   k .2rL.  2kLC1
r

Substituti ng C1 ;
T2  T1  T1  T2 
Q  2kL.  2kL.
r2 r2
ln ln
r1 r1
Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder
Heat Flow Rate: L
T 2  T1 
Q   2  kL .
r2
ln r2
r1 K
r1 T1

Q 
T 1  T2  T Q T2
T1>T2

r2 R
ln
r1
2  kL
r2
ln
r1
Hence RCond  for Cylinder
2kL
Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder
Logarithmic Mean Area (LMA) L
In case of cylinder, in Q expression,
Q=-kA(dT/dr); area transferring
heat A=2лrL changes with r, unlike r1 K
r2
in case of slab. Therefore, it is T1
convenient to work out Mean Area T1>T2
Q T2
Am for use in analogous formula
for slab Q=kA(ΔT/Δx)
2  kL .  T T
If we write Q   k .Am .
r2 r 2  r1
ln
r1
Then A m is mean area which can be utilized
in formula for slab
Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder
Logarithmic Mean Area (LMA)
To obtain value of LMA i , e. Am ;
We multiply & divide Q expression by r2  r1 as ;
2kL. T r2  r1  k .2L r2  r1 .  T
Q . 
ln
r2 r2  r1 
ln
r2 r2  r1 
r1 r1
T
Comparing with Q  k . A m . ;
r2  r1
2 L r2  r1  A o  A i
We have Am  
r2 Ao
ln ln
r1 Ai
One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow Sphere T1>T2

Consider a hollow sphere of inner

radius r1 and outer r2 of a material r2 r1
K
having conductivity k.
T1
Q
Inner surface of sphere is at
temp T1 and outer at T2 T2

Conduction Equation for one dimensional (radial)

Heat flow (without g) will be:

1 d  2 dT  d  2 dT 
 r   0   r   0
r 2 dr  dr  dr  dr 
One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow Sphere T1>T2

d  2 dT 
Integrating Eqn ...  r 0
dr  dr  r2 r1
K

2 dT dT C1
We have r  C1 or  2 ...(1) T1
Q
dr dr r
T2

On further Integration, we have

C1
T   C 2 .............(2)
r
One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow Sphere T1>T2

Boundary Conditions:

1) At r=r1 ; T=T1 r2 r1
K
2) At r=r2 ; T=T2
T1
Q
C1 T2
Substituting in Eqn T    C2 ...(2)
r

T1  T 2 .r1 r2
We have C1 
r1  r2
T1  T 2 .r2
And C 2  T1 
r1  r2
One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow Sphere

C1
Substituting C1 & C 2 in Eqn T    C 2
r
r1 r2  r r2 r  r1
T . .T1  . .T2
r r2  r1 r r2  r1

This is the Temp Profile across the thickness

of sphere
One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow Sphere
dT 2 dT
Heat Flow Rate Q  kA  k.4r .
dr dr
dT C1 2 C1
Substituti ng   Q  k .4r . 2  4kC1
dr r r
Substituti ng C1 ;
T1  T2 T1  T2
Q  4k .r2 r1 . 
r2  r1 r2  r1
4k .r2 r1
r2  r1
Therefore Rcond  and Am  4r1 r2
4kr2 r1
Conductive Resistances
 x
For Slab: R 
kA
r2
ln
For Hollow Cylinder: r1
R 
2  kL
r2  r1
For Sphere: R
4kr2 r1
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Heat Flow Rate can also be given as Q=UAΔT;
where U is called as overall heat transfer coefficient
For plane wall:
T T
Q  UA  T  
1 1 x 1
 
UA h1 A kA h 2 A
1 1 x 1
hence   
UA h1 A kA h2 A
1 1 x 1
Therefore ,   
U h1 k h2
 where U is Overall Heat Transfer Coeff
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
For Cylinder: Ao
Uo

Q  U i Ai Ti  To   U o Ao Ti  To 
r2
T  T r1
Ai r3
  
1 1 r
ln r2
Ti
ln 3 Ui hi
Ui Ai Uo Ao 1 r1 r2 1
   k1
hi Ai 2k1L 2k2 L ho Ao
k2 ho
r2 r3 To
ln ln
1 1 1 r1 r2 1
    
U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai 2k1 L 2k 2 L ho Ao
where U i is Overall heat transfer coeff based on inner surface area Ai
and U o is Overall heat transfer coeff based on outer surface area Ao
Ai  2r1 L and Ao  2r3 L
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
For Sphere:

Q Ui Ai Ti To  Uo Ao Ti To 

T  T
  
1 1 1 r2  r1 r3  r2 1
  
U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai 4k1r2 r1 4k 2 r3 r2 ho Ao
1 1 1 r2  r1 r3  r2 1
    
U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai 4k1r2 r1 4k 2 r3 r2 ho Ao
whereU i is Overall heat transfer coeff based on inner surfacearea Ai
and U o is Overall heat transfer coeff based on outer surfacearea Ao
2 2
Ai  4r1 and Ao  4r3
Q3. A steel tube with 8cm OD, T∞
6cm ID and k=15W/mK,
r2
is covered with an insulation
covering of thickness 2cm r1
Tg hg
and k=0.2W/mK. A hot gas 3r

at 300°C with hg=400W/m2K ks ki

flows inside the tube. The ha

outer surface of insulation is
exposed to cool air at 30°C
with ha=50W/m2K. Calculate Uo=?
over all heat transfer coeff.
Uo based on outer surface of
Q=?
insulation and heat loss from
the tube for its 25m length.
Solution: Q=UoAoΔT=UiAiΔT T∞

r2
r3 r2
ln ln r1
1 1 r2 r1 1 r3 Tg hi
   
Uo Ao ho Ao 2Ki L 2ks L hi Ai ks ki

2
Ao  2r3 L  9.42m ; Ai  2r1L ho

2
Uo Ao  63.67Uo  6.759W / m K
Q  UoAo  T
 63 x 67 ( 300  30 )
 17 . 19 kW
Q4. An insulating powder is Insulating Powder
densely packed in the annular
space between two concentric r 2

spheres with radii 75mm and Heater

r
50mm. The inner sphere is T
T i
1

o
uniformly heated with electric K=?
power input of 30 W. Steady state
temp attained by the inner sphere
is 120°C and that by outer surface is 30°C.
Neglecting the thermal offered by the spheres:
a) Draw analogous electrical cct diagram of
the system
b) Calculate thermal conductivity of the powder
Analogous cct ? k=?
Solution: Insulating Powder

Analogous cct ?
Q r2
Ti Q To Heater
Rins
Ti r1
k=? To

Ti  To K=?
Q  30 W
r2  r1
4k ins r1 r2

120  30
 30  k ins  0.1768W / mK
0.075  0.05
4 k .0.075.0.05
Q5. The insulation boards for
air-conditioning purposes areT =45°C
1 T2=20°C
made of three layers, the middle
kp kg kp
being of packed grass 10cm thick
(kg=0.02 W/mK) and the sides 2cm 10cm 2cm
are made of plywood , each of
2m thickness (kp=0.12 W/mK).
They are glued with each other. Qa=? Qb=?
a) Determine heat flow rate if one surface is at 45°C
and the other at 20°C. Neglect resistance of the glue.
b) Instead of glue, if these three boards are bolted by
4 steel bolts (ks=40 W/mK) of 1cm dia each at the
corners per m2 area of the board, then find whether
heat flow rate is going to increase or decrease and
by what percent ?
 R1 R2 R3
Solution: T1 T2

T1  T2 45  20 2
Q   4.69W/m
 p  g  p 0.02 0.1 0.02
   
k p . A k g . A k p . A 0.12x1 0.02x1 0.12x1

With Bolts: T1 T2
R1 R2 R3
R4

Ab  x0.012 x4  3.14x104 m2 ; Q  45  20  6.9W / m 2
4 new
3.61
R4 
 
 2 10  2 10

2
6.9  4.69
ks A 40x3.14x10 4 Increase  x100
4.69
Rt  3.61  47.7 0 0
Q6: A wall 30cm thick of size 5mX3m made of red brick
(kb=0.35W/mK). It is covered on both sides by layers
of plaster 2cm thick (kp=0.6W/mK). The wall has a
window of size 1mX2m. The door of window made up
of 12mm thick glass has a conductivity kg=1.2 W/mK.
Inner and outer
air temp are
10 & 40°C. 3m
2cm 2cm
Take h on both 30cm
h=15
sides as 15 W/m K.
2
m Q
1

Estimate the rate 2m To=40°C

5m
of heat flow
Kb=0.35
through the Ti=10°C
wall.
Solution: To  Ti 40  10
Q 
R R
Rp1 Rb Rco
10°C Rci Rp2
40°C

Rw
2cm 2cm
3m 30cm
h=15
1m Q
2m Rp1 Rb Rp2
5m
Rco
Kb=0.35 To=40°C
Ti=10°C
h=15
Solution:
1 1
Rci    4.44x103  Rco
hA 15x5x3
X 0.02
R p1    2.56x103  R p 2
k p A 0.6x13
2cm 2cm
0.3 3 3m
Rb   65.9x10 30cm
0.35x13 h=15
1m Q
0.012
Rw   5x103 2m Rp1 Rb Rp2
1.2x2x1 5m
Ti=10°C Rco
Kb=0.35 To=40°C
Rt=13.54x10-3 h=15
40  10
Q 3
 2215.66W Ans.
13.54 x10
Assignment No 1
End of Unit - I