TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Compiled by:
Engr. Jessa Mae A. Gomez
 Traffic Characteristics
Traffic Studies and Accident studies
Transportation System

A transportation system is an infrastructure that serves to move people and

goods efficiently.

Efficient - safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, environmentally

compatible

Major Transportation sub-systems

1. Land transportation
2. Air transportation 
3. Water transportation
4. Pipelines
Traffic Engineering

 Is the branch of engineering which deals with planning and geometric

design of streets, highway, and operating traffic systems to achieve safe,
economical, convenient and efficient movement of persons and goods

Objective:
• To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic with least number of
traffic accidents.

Traffic can be classified into two classes:

1. Road Users
2. Vehicular Traffic 
Road User Characteristics

1. Permanent
• Physical
 Vision- Acuity of vision, Peripheral vision, Eye movement, Glare vision and recovery, Perception
to depth and distance
 Hearing
 Strength
 Reaction Time (PIEV Theory)
• Mental
 Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience, and literacy
• Psychological-
 Attentiveness, fear, anger, anxiety, phobias, superstition, and impatience
• Environment-
 Traffic stream characteristics, facilities to the traffic, atmospheric conditions and locality
2. Temporary
• Alcohol, drugs, workload, illness, fatigue, anger
 PIEV Theory
According to PIEV Theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts.
 Perception Time
 Time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears to be transmitted to the brain through
the nervous system
 Intellection Time
 Time required for understanding the situation
 Emotion Time
 Time elapsed during emotional sensations & disturbance such as fear, anger, etc. with reference to the
situation
 Volition Time
 Time taken for the final action
 Total reaction time of driver may vary from 0.5 sec to 4 sec. 
Lag distance = v * t
where,
v= speed of the vehicle in m/s and t= total reaction time (s)
Lag Distance

• The distance traveled by the vehicle during the total reaction time is
known as lag distance.

• Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object
is visible to the driver in the instant that the brakes are effectively
applied.
Vehicular Characteristics

 Static  Dynamic
• Dimensions (length, width, • Speed
height) • Acceleration
• Weight (gross vehicular weight, • Braking
axle load) • Engine horsepower
• Max. turning angle/radius
• Height of vehicle
• Height of driver seat
• Height of headlight
• Clearance below the chassis
 Traffic Studies
A traffic study is a detailed examination and analysis of a transportation system supported
by data collection.

The process is as follows:

• A study starts with the identification and definition of a transportation problem,
followed by data collection and analysis. 
• A study is typically performed to explore a specific aspect of, or question about, a
transportation system. 
• Study results are usually summarized in a report. 

Traffic studies are carried out to analyze the traffic characteristics. These studies helps in
deciding the geometric design features traffic control for safe and efficient traffic
movement.
SPEED
Speed Studies

Spot Speed
 Instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.

Average Speed
 Average of the spot speeds of all vehicles passing a given point on the highway.

Running Speed
 Average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is in motion

Running speed = Length of course/ Running time

= Length of course / (Journey time-delays)
Speed Studies

Space mean speed

 Average speed of vehicles in a certain road length at a given
instant. 

Where, = space mean speed

n = no. of vehicles
V = speed of the vehicle
Speed Studies

Time mean speed

 Mean speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of time or the
average of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot.

Where,
= time mean speed
n = no. of vehicles
V = speed of the vehicle
Speed Studies

Journey speed or Travel speed

 The effective speed between two points. It is the distance between two
points divided by the total time taken by the vehicle to complete the
journey, including all delays.

Journey speed = Distance / Total journey time (including delays)

Types of Speed Study

1. Spot speed study

Uses:
 Planning traffic control and in traffic regulation
 Geometric design for redesigning the existing highway
 Accident studies
 Traffic capacity

2. Speed and delay study

Methods of Spot Speed Studies

Methods available for spot speed can be group as:

 Observations that require time taken by a vehicle to cover a
known distance.
 Long base methods
1. Direct timing procedure
2. Enoscope
 Short base methods
 Radar speedometer
 Photographic method
Direct Timing Procedure

Simplest method
• Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance
apart and an observer starts and stops stopwatch as a vehicle crosses these
two marks.

• From known distance and time, speed can be calculated.

Disadvantages:
 Errors due to parallax effect
 Reaction time of two observers
Enoscope

• Also known as mirror box

• L-shaped box, open at both ends, with a mirror set at 45◦ to the arms
of the instrument.

• It bends the line of sight of the observer perpendicular to the path of

vehicle
Enoscope
Enoscope

• Instrument is placed directly opposite to the first reference point and

the observer stations himself at the second reference point.
• Stopwatch is started as soon as the vehicle passes the first point and is
stopped as soon as it passes the observer.
• If two enoscope is used, the observer stations himself midway between
two reference points.
Advantages:
 Eliminates parallax effect
 Equipment is of low cost, simple and can set up easily.
Radar Speedometer

• Works on the Doppler principle

• Speed of a moving body is proportional to change in frequency between the
radio wave transmitted to the moving body and the radio wave received
back.
• Directly measures speed.
• Setup near the edge of carriageway at a height of 1m.
• It is so kept that the angle between direction of travel of vehicle and axis of
transmission of radio wave is as low as possible (20◦)
• Speed of vehicles in both directions can be observed.
Photographic Method

• Time-lapse camera photography can be used

• Photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time on a special
camera.
• By projecting the film on a screen, the passage of any vehicle can
be traced with reference to time.
• Images by video cameras can also be used
Presentation of Spot Speed Data

• Average speed of vehicles

 From spot speed data, distribution tables are prepared by
arranging the data in groups covering various speed ranges and
number of vehicles in each range.
 Arithmetic mean is the average speed.

• Cumulative speed of vehicles

 Graph is plotted with average values of each group on X-axis and
cumulative % of vehicles travelling at different speeds.
Presentation of Spot Speed Data

• 85th percentile speed: Speed at or below 85% of vehicles are passing the
point of highway.
 Only 15% of vehicles exceed the speed at the spot.
 Drivers exceeding 85th percentile speed are considered to drive
faster than the safe speed. Hence, 85 th percentile speed is adopted
for safe speed limit at that zone.

• 50th percentile speed: median speed

• 15th percentile speed: represents the lower speed limit

SPEED & DELAY
Speed and Delay Study

• Give the running speeds, overall speeds, fluctuations in speeds and the
delay between two stations of a road.
• Give information such as the amount, location, duration and cause of delay
in the traffic stream.
• Result of this study are useful in detecting the spot of congestion
• Delay or time lost traffic during the travel period may be either due to
fixed delays or operational delays.
 Fixed delay occurs primarily at intersections due to traffic signals
and at level crossings.
 Operational delays are cause by the interference of traffic
movement such as turning vehicles, parking vehicles, pedestrians,
etc.
Methods of Speed and Delay Study

1. Floating Car Method

2. License Plate Record Method
3. Interview Technique
4. Elevated Observations
5. Photographic Technique
Floating Car Method

• A test vehicle is driven over a given course of travel at approximately the

average speed of the stream, thus trying to float with the traffic stream.
Number of test runs are made along the study stretch and a group of observers
record the various details.
• One observer is seated in the floating car with two stopwatches.
• One of the stopwatch is used to record the time at various control point like
intersections, bridges or an other fixed points in each trip.
• The other stopwatch is used to find the duration of the individual delays. The
time, location and cause of these delays are recorder by it.
• The number of vehicle overtaking the test vehicle and the no. of vehicle
overtaken by the test vehicle are noted in each trip by third observer.
Floating Car Method

• The no. of vehicles traveling in the opposite direction in each trip is noted by
fourth observer.
• In this method, the detailed information is obtained concerning all phases of
speed and delay including location, duration and causes of delay.
Floating Car Method

Where,
= average journey time in minute
Q = flow of vehicle (average volume) in one direction of the stream
= average number of vehicles counted in the direction of the stream when the test vehicle travels in
the opposite directions
= the average no. of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus the no. vehicles overtaken when the
test is in the direction of ‘q’
= average journey time in minutes when the test vehicle is travelling with the stream ‘q’
= average journey time in minutes when test vehicle is running against the stream ‘q’
License Plate Method

• It synchronized stopwatches or voice recording equipment that are

used. Observers are stationed at the entrance and exit of a test section
where information of travel time is required.
• The timings and vehicle numbers are noted by the observers of the
selected sample.
• From the office computations, travel time of each vehicle could be
found. But, the method does not give important detail such as causes of
delays and the duration and number of delays within the test section.
Interview Technique

• The work can be completed in a short time by interviewing and

collecting details from the road user spot.
• However, the data collected may not provide with all the details
correctly.
Elevated Observations and Photographic
Technique

• This are useful for studying short test section like intersection
 ORIGIN and
DESTINATION
Origin and Destination Study

• Origin is defined as the place where the trip begins and destination is
defined as the place where the trip ends.
• Origin-Destination (OD) studies are an important tool for transportation
professionals. OD studies are conducted to understand the pattern of
movement of persons and goods in a particular area of interest during a
particular period of time.
• This study is carried out mainly to know the origin and destination of various
vehicles.
• In this study the data collected are number of vehicles, their origin and
destination, number of passengers in each vehicle, route, etc.
Use of Origin and Destination Study

• To establish preferential routes for various categories of vehicles

• To locate new proposed roads
• To locate parking places
• To locate expressway
• To regulate movement of heavy vehicles
• To locate new bridge as per traffic demands
Methods of Origin and Destination Study

• Road side Interview Surveys

• Home-interview Surveys
• Telephone Surveys
• Taxi Surveys
• Post card Questionnaire Surveys
• Registration Number Survey
• Tag Survey
• Public Transport Survey
• Commercial Vehicle Survey
Road side Interview Survey

• Interview stations are previously decided on the roadway.

• Vehicles are stopped at the interview stations by a group of persons and
the answers to prescribed questionnaire are collected on the spot.
• Data Collected:
 Place and time of origin
 Place and time of destination
 Route
 Purpose of the trip
 Types of vehicles
 Number of passengers in each vehicle
Road side Interview Survey
Road side Interview Survey

Advantages:
 Data is collected quickly in short duration

Disadvantages:
 Vehicles are stopped for interview and there is delay
to the vehicular movement.
Home-interview Survey

• Random sample of 0.5-10% of the population is selected and the residence

are visited by the trained person who collect the travel data from each
member of the household.

• Detailed information regarding the trips made by the members is obtained

on the spot.

• Data collected may be useful for planning the road network and other
roadway facilities.
Home-interview Survey

Data Collected
 Number of trip made
 Their origin and destination
 Purpose of trip
 Travel mode
 Number of residents
 Age
 Vehicle ownership
 Number of drivers
 Family income
Home-interview Survey

Advantages
 The problem of stopping of vehicles and consequent difficulties are
avoided
 The present travel needs are clearly known and the analysis is also
simple
 Additional data including socio-economic and other details may be
collected so as to be useful for forecasting traffic and transportation
growth
Telephone Survey

• This method are conducted with the use of computer assisted telephone
interview (CATI) technology.
• A complete CATI system might include automatic dialing of next
household to the interviewer to ask the next question. Automatic skipping
and branching within the list of questions depending on the answer to the
previous question.
• Immediate logic checks on answer provided
Telephone Survey

Advantages
 Saving the time

Disadvantages
 Information response is not good
Taxi Survey

• Large urban areas usually have a sizeable amount of travel by taxis, in

such cases, a separate taxi survey is necessary.

• Survey consists of issuing questionnaires or log sheets to the taxi drivers

and requesting them to complete those.
Post card Questionnaire Survey

• Reply-paid questionnaires are handed over to each of the drivers at the survey
points and requesting them to complete the information and return by post.

Advantages
 Simpler and cheaper than many other method

Disadvantages
 Response may not be good
Registration Number Survey

• Consists of noting the registration number of vehicles entering or leaving an area at

survey points located on the cordon line.
• By matching the registration number of the vehicles at the point of entry and exit
from the area, one is enabled to identify two points on the paths of the vehicles.

Advantages
 Work does not interfere with the traffic in any way

Disadvantages
 Large number of observers are needed
 Analysis of the results can be complicated
Tag Survey

• Each point where the roads cross the cordon line, vehicles are stopped
and a tag is affixed, usually under a wind screen wiper.
• Tags for different survey stations have different shapes/color to identify
the survey station.
• Vehicles are stopped again at the exit points where the tags are
removed.
• The time of entering and leaving the area may be marked on the tags in
order for the journey time to be determined
Tag Survey

Advantages
 Simple and errors are not very large

Disadvantages
 It is impossible to handle all the vehicles, sampling may be restored for it
to be done
Public Transport Survey

• Interviewer may enter the vehicle and carry out the interviews
when the vehicle is in motion.

• These questionnaires may also be collected at the stations inside

the survey area.
Commercial Vehicle Survey

• Conducted to obtain information on journeys made by commercial

vehicles based within the study area.

• Addresses of the vehicle operators are obtained and are contacted.

• Forms are issued to drivers with a request that they record particulars
of all the trips they would make.
PARKING
Effect of Parking

Congestion
 Parking takes considerable street space leading to the lowering of the road
capacity. Hence, speed will be reduced, journey time and delay will also
subsequently increase. The operational cost of the vehicle increases, leading to
great economical loss to the community.

Accidents
Careless maneuvering of parking and backing out leads to accidents which are referred
to as parking accidents. Common type of parking accidents occur while driving out
a car from the parking area, careless opening of the doors of parked cars, and while
bringing in the vehicle to the parking lot for parking.
Effect of Parking

Environmental pollution
 They also cause pollution to the environment because stopping and starting of
vehicles while parking and getting out results in noise and fumes. They also affect
the aesthetic beauty of the buildings because cars parked at every available
space creates a feeling that building rises from a plinth of cars.

Obstruction to fire fighting operations

Parked vehicles may obstruct the movement of fire fighting vehicles. Sometimes,
they block access to hydrants and access to buildings.
 General Terms of Parking Facilities 

• Parking Accumulation: The total number of vehicles parked in an area at a specified moment. 
• Parking volume: The number of vehicles parked in a particular area over a given period of
time. It is usually measured in vehicles per day. This does not account for repetition of
vehicles. The actual volume of vehicles entered in the area is recorded. 
• Parking load: Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It can also be
obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at each
time interval with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle hours.
• Parking duration: The length of time spent in a parking space.
• Parking turn over: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of
parking bays available. This can be expressed as number of vehicles per bay per time
duration. 
Parking System 

ON STREET PARKING
On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself. This will be usually
controlled by government agencies itself. Common types of on-street parking are as listed below. This
classification is based on the angle in which the vehicles are parked with respect to the road alignment. As
per IRC the standard dimensions of a car is taken as 5× 2.5 meters and that for a truck is 3.75× 7.5 meters.

Parallel parking

The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is no backward movement involved while
parking or un-parking the vehicle. Hence, it is the most safest parking from the accident perspective.
o 30◦ parking: In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30◦ with respect to the road alignment. In
this case, more vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking. Delay caused to the traffic is also
minimum in this type of parking
Parking System

o 45◦ parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked. Hence compared
to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can be accommodated in this
type of parking.

o 60◦ parking: The vehicles are parked at 60◦ to the direction of road. More number of vehicles can be
accommodated in this parking type. 

Right angle parking

In right angle parking or 90◦ parking, the vehicles are parked perpendicular to the direction of the road.
Although it consumes maximum width kerb length required is very little. In this type of parking, the
vehicles need complex maneuvering and this may cause severe accidents. This arrangement causes
obstruction to the road traffic particularly if the road width is less.
Parking System

OFF-SITE PARKING
In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which
will be at some distance away from the main stream of traffic. Such parking
is referred to as off-street parking.
Parking Survey

In-out survey
• In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning. Then the
number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is counted.
• The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken. The final occupancy in the parking
lot is also taken. Here the labor required is very less. Only one person may be enough. But we wont
get any data regarding the time duration for which a particular vehicle used that parking lot.
• Parking duration and turn over is not obtained. Hence we cannot estimate the parking fare from
this survey. For quick survey purposes, a fixed period sampling can also be done. This is almost
similar to in-out survey. All vehicles are counted at the beginning of the survey. Then after a fixed
time interval that may vary between 15 minutes to i hour, the count is again taken. Here there are
chances of missing the number of vehicles that were parked for a short duration.
Parking Survey

License plate method of survey

• This results in the most accurate and realistic data. In this case of survey, every parking stall is
monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes or so and the license plate number is noted down.
• This will give the data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was using the parking
bay.
• This will help in calculating the fare because fare is estimated based on the duration for which the
vehicle was parked.
• If the time interval is shorter, then there are less chances of missing short-term parkers. But this
method is very labor intensive. 
ACCIDENT STUDY
Accident Studies

Road accident cannot be totally prevented, but by suitable traffic engineering

and management measures, the accident rate can be decreased considerably.

Objectives:
• To study the causes of accident and to suggest corrective treatment at potential location
• To evaluate the existing
• To support proposed design
• To carry out studies before and after for improvement
• To make financial computations and to give economic justifications for the improvements
suggested by the traffic engineer
Causes of Road Accidents

• Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to perceive
traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol, sleep etc.
• Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tire burst, lighting system .
• Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
• Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting.
• Environmental factors - unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and heavy
rainfall which restrict normal visibility and and makes driving unsafe.
• Other causes - improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not closed
when required etc.
Accident Analysis

Collection of Accident Data

• General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classification of accident like serious, minor
• Location - Description and detail of location of accident
• Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading detail,
vehicular defects
• Nature of accident – pedestrians or object involved, Details of collision, damages, injury.
• Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics, type of traffic,
traffic density etc.
• Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already mentioned) which are
the main causes of accident.
• Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury and is
computed.
Accident Analysis

Accident Report
• Accident should be reported to police authorities.
• Accident report is useful in subsequent analysis, claim for compensation , evaluation
of cost, etc.

Accident Records
• Location Files useful to keep a check on the location of accidents and to identify
points of high accident incidence.
• Spot Maps show accident by spots, pins or symbol on road map.
Collision Diagram

• Collision diagrams are used to display and identify similar accident

patterns.
• They provide information on the type and number of accidents; including
conditions such as time of day, day of week, climatic conditions, pavement
conditions, and other information critical to determining the causes of
safety problems.
• Accident reports should be organized by year of occurrence and accident
type for the analysis period. Accidents that occurred after significant
changes in highway or local land use should not be included.
Collision Diagram

A. Construction of Collision Diagram

• Sketch of the collision diagram for either an intersection or a roadway section using a
standard form as shown on the following page.
• The sketch need not be to scale. 
• Show the path of each vehicle involved in the accident with adequate room for
information.
• Place a north arrow for orientation and any other descriptive information
 Location identification
 Period of analysis 
 Label the roads
Collision Diagram

• Sketch the path of each vehicle to show vehicle maneuver, type of collision and accident severity, and;
 Time of day
 Day of week
 Date
 Lighting condition
 Pavement condition
 Other important information, e.g., alcohol involvement 

B. Symbols
• Symbols representing the nature of operation, vehicle or object involved and severity of the accident
are adopted. These are shown in the example collision diagram below. Symbols to represent types of
collisions diagrams are also standardized.
Condition Diagram

• The purpose of the Condition Diagram is to show the intersection and the
conditions within the surrounding area as it exists.
• The diagram should include the intersection alignment, items such as
buildings, sidewalks, trees, lighting poles, water hydrants, stop signs,
number of lanes, and lane use if required, associated with the streets
forming the intersection. When applicable, the Condition Diagram shall
show the length of all exclusive lanes.
• The Condition Diagram provides the engineer with details of field
conditions and helps investigate the need for changes to existing traffic
control devices. The diagram should also be part of an intersection crash
analysis. 
Condition Diagram

Preparing the Condition Diagram

A. General Details
1. The engineer should enter the Location I.D. so that the intersection is thoroughly
identified.
2. The name of the highway, highway number, and direction for both streets should
be included.
3. County, City, Date, and Person(s) preparing the diagram.
4. Orient the intersection by indicating north on the north arrow. All items
associated with the streets should be drawn using the symbols as outlined on the
bottom of the form.
Condition Diagram

B. Highway and intersection design features, including:

1. Pavement edges, curbs, and shoulders (unpaved or paved)
2. Widths of approaches
3. Approach grades
4. Channelization
5. Parking conditions and restrictions
6. Bus stops
7. Safety lighting or continuous lighting
8. Any other roadway features which may affect traffic operations 
Condition Diagram

C. Roadside development, including: 

1. Sight distance restrictions (trees, bushes, advertising and other signs, poles, fences,
bridge, and guard rails)
2. Off street parking
3. Driveway locations
4. Utility and other poles
5. Adjacent land use
6. Any other pertinent features
Condition Diagram

D. Traffic control devices, such as:

1. Signs
2. Traffic signals (type, face locations, etc.)
3. Distance to adjacent traffic signals within 1.61 km (one mile) (indicate if none)
4. Pavement markings 
Accident Investigation and Studies

Accident Investigation
• Recording general observations: partially or full break application collision and
condition diagram, environmental condition, and pavement surface condition
• Driver Tests: alcohol content, vision, reaction time, age, distance judgment.
• Skid Resistance of Pavement Surface: skid distance ,skid resistance, speed of the
vehicle
• Vehicle Tests: age of vehicle, indicators, type, type of tires, mirrors, brakes,
steering
• Probable causes of the accidents: type of accident, Position of vehicle and object
involved in accidents.
• Cost Analysis
Accident Investigation and Studies

Analysis of Individual Accidents

Each Road accident is to be analyzed by the traffic engineer to draw
sound conclusions with reference to the major cause of accident and
other contributing causes.

A few simple type of vehicular accidents are:

1. A moving vehicle collide with the stationary object
2. A moving vehicle collide with a movable object.
3. To vehicles approaching from different directions collide at an intersections.
4. Rear end collision of two moving vehicles.
Accident Investigation and Studies

Statistical Analysis of Accidents

• The statistical analysis of road accidents help to asses the effectiveness of various
measures to decrease the accident rate .
• The accident rate may be expressed as no. of accidents in a year.
• Accident prone stretches of different roads may be assessed by finding the accident
density per unit length of the road.

Methods
1. Regression Analysis
2. Poisson’s distribution
3. Use of chi-squared test
4. Quality control methods
Measures for Reduction in Accident Rate

Engineering Education
• Road Design Education to road users
• Preventive measures of vehicles Safety drive
• Before and after studies
• Road lighting

Enforcement
• Speed control
• Traffic control devices
• Training and supervision
• Medical check
• Special precaution for commercial vehicles
• Observance of law and regulation
Level of Service (LOS)

• LOS measures how well traffic moves along a roadway. It is the term used to qualitatively
describe the operating condition of roadway based on factors such as speed, delay, travel
time, and safety.
• It is designated with letter A to F where A representing the best and F representing worst.

Factors Affecting LOS:

1. Speed and travel time
2. Traffic interruptions/ Restrictions
3. Freedom to travel with desired operating speed
4. Driver comfort and convenience
5. Economy, Operating cost
Various LOS

• LOS A : Traffic volume is less hence free flow of traffic is available. Drivers can select the
desired speed. Merging, diverging, lane changing movements can be easily done even at
maximum density the average spacing between vehicle is 167 m.

• LOS B: Zone of reasonably free flow. Free flow speeds are still maintained while drivers
freedom to chose desired speed is slightly restricted. The lowest average spacing between
vehicles is about 100m.

• LOS C: Presence of other vehicles began to restrict the manoeuvrability within the traffic
stream. Average speeds remain near the free flow but significant increase on driver vigilance is
required at this level. Min average spacing between vehicles is 67 m. Queues formed behind is
sign of blockage.
Various LOS

•  LOS D: Average speed began to decline with increase in flow. Freedom of maneuver within
traffic stream is restricted. Spacing between vehicle is 50m as stream as little space, minor
incidents can lead to queuing of vehicles.

• LOS E: At this level stream reaches its maximum density level. There will be no usable gaps on
streams and even slight disruption will cause a breakdown with queues forming rapidly behind
disruptions. Moving within stream is extremely different.

• LOS F: This describes condition on a queue that has formed behind a point of breakdown or
disruption. LOS F represents the region of forced flow, having low speed and complete
breakdown of system.
Prevention of Road Accident

• Strict punishment should be enforced by government if a person drives

in over speed.
• Tamper proof speed controllers should be installed in all vehicles.
• Two wheelers should not exceeded 50-70km/h.
• All the rules should be followed properly by the people.
Thank you!